IT 


1 


xr£ 


K, 


GIFT   OF 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


BY 

CHARLES    E.   BENNETT 

PROFESSOR  OF  LATIN  IN  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 


Boston 

ALLYN    AND     BACON 
1895 


*#/ 


, 
~ 


COPYRIGHT,  1895, 
BY  CHARLES   E.  BENNETT. 


J,  S.  Gushing  &  Co.  — Berwick  &  Smith, 
Norwood,  Mass,,  U,S,A, 


PREFACE. 


THE  object  of  this  book  is  to  present  the  essential  facts  of  Latin 
grammar  in  a  direct  and  simple  manner,  and  within  the  smallest 
compass  consistent  with  scholarly  standards.  While  intended 
primarily  for  the  secondary  school,  it  has  not  neglected  the  needs 
of  the  college  student,  and  aims  to  furnish  such  grammatical  in- 
formation as  is  ordinarily  required  in  undergraduate  courses. 

The  experience  of  German  educators  in  recent  years  has  tended 
to  restrict  the  size  of  school-grammars  of  Latin,  and  has  demanded 
an  incorporation  of  the  main  principles  of  the  language  in  com- 
pact manuals  of  250  pages.1  Within  the  past  decade,  several  gram- 
mars of  this  scope  have  appeared  which  have  amply  met  the 
exacting  demands  of  the  full  Gymnasial  Latin  course,  —  a  period  of 
study  representing  quite  as  much  reading  as  that  covered  by  the 
average  American  undergraduate. 

The  publication  in  this  country  of  a  grammar  of  similar  plan 
and  scope  seems  fully  justified  at  the  present  time,  as  all  recent 
editions  of  classic  texts  summarize  in  introductions  the  special 
idioms  of  grammar  and  style  peculiar  to  individual  authors. 
This  makes  it  feasible  to  dispense  with  the  enumeration  of 
many  minutiae  of  usage  which  would  otherwise  demand  con- 
sideration in  a  student's  grammar. 

In  the  chapter  on  Prosody,  I  have  designedly  omitted  all 
special  treatment  of  the  lyric  metres  of  Horace  and  Catullus,  as 

1  One  of  the  most  eminent  of  living  Latinists,  Professor  Eduard  Wolfflin,  of 
Munich,  has  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  essentials  may  be  given  within  even 
smaller  compass  than  this.  See  his  Preface  to  the  Schmalz-Wagener  Lateinische 
tik^  1891. 

iii 

451920 


iv  Preface. 

well  as  of  the  measures  of  the  comic  poets.  Our  standard  editions 
of  these  authors  all  give  such  thorough  consideration  to  versifica- 
tion that  repetition  in  a  separate  place  seems  superfluous. 

In  the  matter  of  ''hidden  quantities/  I  have  conformed  to 
Lewis's  Latin  Dictionary  for  Schools,  and  the  same  editor's  later 
Elementary  Latin  Dictionary.  In  several  cases  this  procedure 
has  involved  a  sacrifice  of  convictions  as  to  the  actual  quantity  of 
vowels;  but  the  advantages  of  uniformity  in  our  educational 
practice  seemed,  for  the  present  at  least,  to  warrant  this  conces- 
sion of  personal  views. 

The  discussion  of  inflectional  forms  and  of  the  development  of 
case  and  mood  constructions  has  been  reserved  for  the  Appendix 
for  Teachers,  where  these  and  some  other  matters  receive  full 
and  systematic  consideration. 

To  several  of  my  colleagues,  who  have  generously  assisted  me 
with  their  advice  and  criticism  during  the  preparation  and  print- 
ing of  this  book,  I  desire  to  offer  my  sincerest  thanks,  especially 
to  Professors  H.  C.  Elmer  and  B.  I.  Wheeler,  of  Cornell  Univer- 
sity, Professor  Alfred  Gudeman,  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
Professor  George  L.  Hendrickson,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 
and  Professors  Francis  W.  Kelsey  and  John  C.  Rolfe,  of  the 
University  of  Michigan. 

ITHACA,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  15,  1894. 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS. 
PART  I. 

SOUNDS,  ACCENT,  QUANTITY,  ETC. 

PAGE 

The  Alphabet i 

Classification  of  Sounds           .........  i 

Sounds  of  the  Letters 3 

Syllables        ............  4 

Quantity        ............  4 

Accent  .............  5 

Vowel  Changes      ...........  6 

Consonant  Changes        ..........  7 

Peculiarities  of  Orthography .         .         .7 

PART  II. 

INFLECTIONS. 
CHAPTER   I.  —  Declension. 

A.  NOUNS. 

Gender  of  Nouns  ...........     10 

Number .11 

Cases     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .11 

The  Five  Declensions 12 

First  Declension    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         -13 

Second  Declension         ..........      14 

Third  Declension 18 

Fourth  Declension          ..........     28 

Fifth  Declension    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .29 

Defective  Nouns    ...........     30 

B.   ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions 34 

Adjectives  of  the  Third  Declension          .......     36 

v 


vi  Table  of  Contents. 

PAGE 

Comparison  of  Adjectives 40 

Formation  and  Comparison  of  Adverbs          ......       43 

Numerals    ............       45 

C.   PRONOUNS. 

Personal  Pronouns        ..........  48 

Reflexive  Pronouns       ..........  49 

Possessive  Pronouns     ..........  49 

Demonstrative  Pronouns       .........  50 

The  Intensive  Pronoun 51 

The  Relative  Pronoun 51 

Interrogative  Pronouns          .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .52 

Indefinite  Pronouns 52 

Pronominal  Adjectives 53 

CHAPTER   II.  —  Conjugation. 

Verb-Stems.         . 54 

The  Four  Conjugations .         .         -55 

Conjugation  of  Sum     ..........       56 

First  Conjugation .         .         -58 

Second  Conjugation      .          .         .          .          .          .          .          .  .62 

Third  Conjugation         ..........       66 

Fourth  Conjugation       ..........        70 

Verbs  in  -id  of  the  Third  Conjugation    .......       74 

Deponent  Verbs  .         .  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .76 

Semi-Deponents  ...........       78 

Periphrastic  Conjugation       .........       78 

Peculiarities  of  Conjugation  .........       79 

Formation  of  the  Verb-Stems        ........       80 

List  of  the  Most  Important  Verbs  with  Principal  Parts  ....       83 

Irregular  Verbs    ...........       95 

Defective  Verbs 102 

Impersonal  Verbs         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .104 


PART  III. 

PARTICLES. 

Adverbs 106 

Prepositions 107 

Interjections 108 


Table  of  Contents.  vii 

PART  IV. 

WORD   FORMATION. 

I.  DERIVATIVES. 

PAGE 

Nouns 109 

Adjectives  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  iri 

Verbs.         . 113 

Adverbs       . 114 

II.  COMPOUNDS. 

Examples  of  Compounds      .'       .         .         ..         .         ..         .115 

PART  V. 

SYNTAX. 

CHAPTER   I.  — Sentences. 

Classification  of  Sentences 117 

Form  of  Interrogative  Sentences  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .117 

Subject  and  Predicate  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .119 

Simple  and  Compound  Sentences 119 

CHAPTER   II.  —  Syntax  of  Nouns. 

Subject        .         .         . 1 20 

Predicate  Nouns  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .120 

Appositives  .         ....         .         .         .         .         .         .         .     121 

The  Nominative  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .122 

The  Accusative .      122 

The  Dative  ............      129 

The  Genitive         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .134 

The  Ablative        ...........     142 

The  Locative        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .152 

CHAPTER   III.  —  Syntax  of  Adjectives. 

Agreement  of  Adjectives 153 

Adjectives  used  Substantively        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .154 

Adjectives  with  the  Force  of  Adverbs    .         .         .         .  .         .156 

Comparatives  and  Superlatives      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .156 

Other  Peculiarities 156 


viii  Table  of  Contents. 

CHAPTER   IV.  —  Syntax  of  Pronouns. 

PAGE 

Personal  Pronouns 157 

Possessive  Pronouns     .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .157 

Reflexive  Pronouns       .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .158 

Reciprocal  Pronouns    .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  -159 

Demonstrative  Pronouns  .  .  .  .  .  %  .  .  «     159 

Relative  Pronouns        .  .  .  .  .  .  •  .  .161 

Indefinite  Pronouns      .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .'  .      163 

Pronominal  Adjectives  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .164 

CHAPTER   V.  —  Syntax  of  Verbs. 

Agreement  of  Verbs  .         .         .',.-•.       ~.         .         .         .     165 

Voices          .         .         .         .         ...         .         .         .         .         .     167 

Tenses         .         .        ...         .         .         .         .•        ..        .  '  *  .         .         .     167 

Of  the  Indicative     .         .         .  :      ......         .         .1.      167 

Of  the  Subjunctive .         .         ...         .         .         .         .         .171 

Of  the  Infinitive .         .         .         .      1 74 

Moods          ;         .         .         .         J  .         .         .         ..         .         .176 

In  Independent  Sentences        .         .         ...         .         .         .176 

Volitive  Subjunctive  .         .         .-  .         .  .         .176 

Optative  Subjunctive .         .         .         .  .  .         .178 

Potential  Subjunctive          .         . 179 

Imperative          .         .         .         ...  '     .         .         .         .         .         .      180 

In  Dependent  Sentences          .  .         .         .         .         .         .181 

Clauses  of  Purpose    «         .         ...         ...         .         .         .     181 

Clauses  of  Characteristic    .         .         .  .         .          .         .182 

Clauses  of  Result       .         .         .       ' 184 

Causal  Clauses 185 

Temporal  Clauses       .         .         *         .         ...         .         .         .      187 

Introduced  by  Postquam,  Ut,  Ubi,  etc.  .         .         •.         .         .187 

6ww-Clauses         .         .         .         .> 188 

Introduced  by  Antequam  and  Priusquam      .          .         .         .190 
Introduced  by  Dum,  Donee,  Quoad      .....     191 

Substantive  Clauses    .         .        y 192 

Developed  from  the  Volitive  .         .         .         .         .         .192 

Developed  from  the  Optative          .         .         .         .         .         .194 

Of  Result      . 195 

After  ribn  dubito,  etc.     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         -195 

Introduced  by  Quod      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .196 

Indirect  Questions         ........      197 

Conditional  Sentences         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .198 

Use  of  Sz,  Nisi,  Sin 202 


Table  of  Contents.  ix 

PAGE 

Conditional  Clauses  of  Comparison      ......     203 

Concessive  Clauses     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .     203 

Adversative  Clauses  with  Quamv'zs,  Quamquam,  etc.    .          .          .     203 

Clauses  of  Wish  and  Proviso       .         .          .....     205 

Relative  Clauses         .........     205 

Indirect  Discourse 206 

Moods  in  Indirect  Discourse 206 

Tenses  in  Indirect  Discourse          ......     208 

Conditional  Sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse  .         .         .         .     209 

Implied  Indirect  Discourse          . 211 

Subjunctive  by  Attraction  .          .         .         .         .         .          ..212 

Noun  and  Adjective  Forms  of  the  Verb          .         .         .         .         .         .212 

Infinitive         .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .213 

Participles       .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .217 

Gerun^i 220 

Supine    ............     223 

CHAPTER   VI.—  Particles. 

Coordinate  Conjunctions       .......          .         .     223 

Adverbs       ............     227 

CHAPTER   VII.—  Word-Order  and  Sentence- Structure. 

Word-Order 227 

.  Sentence-Structure        ..........     232 

CHAPTER   VIII.  —  Hints  on  Latin  Style. 

Nouns          ............  233 

Adjectives    ............  235 

Pronouns     ............  236 

Verbs  .............  236 

The  Cases    ............  238 


PART  VI. 

PROSODY.  . 

Quantity  of  Vowels  and  Syllables 240 

Verse-Structure    ...........  243 

The  Dactylic  Hexameter       .........  245 

The  Dactylic  Pentameter 246 

Iambic  Verses      ...........  246 


x  Table  of  Contents. 

SUPPLEMENTS   TO  THE  GRAMMAR. 

PAGE 

I.    Roman  Calendar - .         .         .         .     247 

II.    Abbreviations  of  Proper  Names     ......          .     249 

III.    Figures  of  Syntax  and  Rhetoric     .......     249 


PART   1. 
SOUNDS,  ACCENT,  QUANTITY. 


THE   ALPHABET. 

1.    The   Latin  Alphabet  is  the  same   as   the    English, 
except  that  the  Latin  has  no  w. 

1 .  K  occurs  only  in  Kalendae  and  a  few  other  words ;   y  and  z 
were  introduced  from  the  Greek  about  50  B.C.,  and  occur  only  in  foreign 
words  —  chiefly  Greek. 

2.  With  the  Romans,  who  regularly  employed  only  capitals,  I  served 
both  as  vowel  and  consonant ;  so  also  V.     For  us,  however,  it  is  more 
convenient  to  distinguish  the  vowel  and  consonant  sounds,  and  to  write 
i  and  u  for  the  former,  j  and  v  for  the  latter.    Yet  some  scholars  prefer 
to  employ  i  and  u  in  the  function  of  consonants  as  well  as  vowels. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF   SOUNDS. 

2.    i.   The  Vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y.     The  other  letters 
are  Consonants.     The  Diphthongs  are  ae,  oe,  ei,  au,  eu,  ui. 

2.  Consonants  are  further  subdivided  into  Mutes,  Liquids, 
Nasals,  and  Spirants. 

3.  The  Mutes  are  p,  t,  c,  k,  q;  b,  a,  g;  ph,  th,  ch.     Of 
these,  — 

a)  p,  t,  c,  k,  q  are  voiceless,1  i.e.  sounded  without  voice  or 
vibration  of  the  vocal  chords. 

b)  b,  d,  g  are  voiced,2  i.e.  sounded  with  vibration  of  the  vocal 
chords. 

1  For  '  voiceless,'  '  surd,'  '  hard,'  or  'tenuis '  are  sometimes  used. 

2  For  '  voiced,' '  sonant,'  '  soft,'  or  '  media '  are  sometimes  used. 

B  I 


Sounds,  Accent,  Quantity. 


c)  ph,  ch,  ch  r.re  aspirates.  These  are  confined  almost  exclu- 
sively to  words  derived  from  the  Greek,  and  were  equivalent 

"  *  1  tb  p  -f-  h,  t  f  h,  c  -i-  h,  i.e..  to  the  corresponding  voiceless  mutes 
with  a  following  breath,  as  in  Eng.  loop-hole,  hot-house*  block- 
house. 

4.  The  Mutes  admit  of  classification  also  as 

Labials,  p,  b,  ph. 

i  Dentals  (or  Linguals),      t,  d,  th. 

Gutturals  (or  Palatals),     c,  k,  q,  g,  ch. 

5.  The  Liquids  are  l,  r.     These  sounds  were  voiced. 

6.  The  Nasals  are  m,  n.     These  were  voiced.    Besides  its 
ordinary  sound,  n,  when  followed  by  a  palatal  mute,  also 
had  another  sound,  —  that  of  ng  in  sing,  —  the  so-called 
n  adulterinum  ;  as,  — 

anceps,  double,  pronounced  angceps. 

7.  The  Spirants  (sometimes  called  Fricatives)  are  f,  s,  h. 
These  were  voiceless. 

8.  The  Semivowels  are  j  and  v.     These  were  voiced. 

9.  Double  Consonants  are  x  and  z.     Of  these,  x  was 
equivalent  to  cs,  while  the  equivalence  of  z  is  uncertain. 
See  §  3.  3- 

10.  The  following  table  will  indicate  the  relations  of 
the  consonant  sounds  :  — 

VOICELESS.  VOICED.          ASPIRATES. 

f          p,  b,  ph,  (Labials). 

Mutes,  t,  d,  th,     .        (Dentals). 

[      c,  k,  q,  g,  ch,  (Gutturals). 

Liquids,  1,  r, 

Nasals,  m,  n, 

f,  (Labial). 


Spirants 
Semivowels, 


(Dental). 
(Guttural). 


a.    The  Double  Consonants,  x  and  z,  being  compound  sounds, 
do  not  admit  of  classification  in  the  above  table. 


Sounds  of  the  Letters. 


SOUNDS   OF   THE   LETTERS. 

3.  The  following  pronunciation  (often  called  Roman)  is 
substantially  that  employed  by  the  Romans  at  the  height  of 
their  civilization ;  i.e.  roughly,  from  50  B.C.  to  50  A.D. 

1.  Vowels. 

a  asin/tf//^r;  a  as  in  the  first  syllable  of  ahd ; 

e  as  in  they ;  &  as  in  met ; 

I  as  in  machine ;  I  as  in  pin ; 

6  as  in  note ;  6  as  in  obey,  melody ; 

u  as  in  rude ;  ft.  as  in  put ; 

y  like  French  ?/,  German  u. 

2.  Diphthongs. 

ae  like  ai  in  aisle;  eu  with  its  two  elements,  S  and  ti,  pro- 

oe  like  oi  in  oil;  nounced  in  rapid  succession  ; 

ei   as  in  rein ;  ui  occurs  almost  exclusively  in  cut  and 

au  like  ow  in  how ;  huic.     These  words  are  pronounced 

as  though  written  kivee  and  ivheek. 

3.  Consonants. 

b,  d,  f,  h,  k,  1,  m,  n,  p,  qu  are  pronounced  as  in  English,  except  that 

bs,  bt  are  pronounced  ps,  pt. 
c  is  always  pronounced  as  k. 

t  is  always  a  plain  /,  never  with  the  sound  of  sh  as  in  Eng.  oration. 
g  always  as  in  get ;  when  ngu  precedes  a  vowel,  gu  has  the  sound  of 

gw,  as  in  anguis,  languidus. 
j   has  the  sound  of  y  as  in  yet. 

r  was  probably  slightly  trilled  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue. 
s  always  voiceless  as  in  sin ;  in  suadeo,  suavis,  suesco,  and  in  com- 
pounds and  derivatives  of  these  words,  su  has  the  sound  of  sw. 
v  like  w. 

x  always  like  ks ;  never  like  Eng.  gz  or  z. 
z  uncertain  in  sound  ;  possibly  like  Eng.  zd,  possibly  like  z.    The  latter 

sound  is  recommended. 
The  aspirates  ph,  ch,  th  were  pronounced  very  nearly  like  our  stressed 

Eng.  /,  /,  c  —  so  nearly  so,  that,  for  practical  purposes,  the  latter 

sounds  suffice. 
Doubled  letters,  like  11,  mm,  tt,  etc.,  should  be  so  pronounced  that 

both  members  of  the  combination  are  distinctly  articulated,  v 


Sounds,  Accent,   Quantity. 


SYLLABLES. 

4.  There  are  as  many  syllables  in  a  Latin  word  as  there 
are  separate  vowels  and  diphthongs. 

In  the  division  of  words  into  syllables,  — 

1 .  A  single  consonant  is  joined  to  the  following  vowel ;  as,  vo-lat, 
ge-rit. 

2.  Doubled  consonants,  like  tt,  ss,  etc.,  are  always  separated ;  as, 
vit-ta,  mis-sus. 

3.  In  case  of  other  combinations  of  consonants,  such  as  can  stand  at 
the  beginning  of  a  word  are  joined  to  the  following  vowel ;  as,  ma-gi- 
stri,  di-gnus,  te-xi. 

4.  But  compounds  are  separated  into  their  component  parts ;  as, 
per-it,  ab-radit. 

QUANTITY. 

5.  A.    Quantity  of  Vowels. 

A  vowel  is  long  or  short  according  to  the  length  of  time  required  for 
its  pronunciation.  No  absolute  rule  can  be  given  for  determining  the 
quantity  of  Latin  vowels.  This  knowledge  must  be  gained,  in  large 
measure,  by  experience.  The  following  general  principles,  however, 
are  of  assistance  :  — 

1.  A  vowel  is  long,1  — 

a)  before  nf,  ns,  gn,  gm  ;  as,  Tnfans,  censed,  dignus,  agmen. 

b)  when  the  result  of  contraction  ;  as,  nilum  for  nihilum. 

c)  before  j ;  as,  hujus. 

2.  A  vowel  is  short, — 

a)  before  nt,  nd  ;  as,  amant,  amandus.    A  few  rare  exceptions 
occur  in  cases  of  compounds  whose  first  member  has  a  long 
vowel ;  as,  nondum  (non  dum) . 

b)  before  another  vowel,  or  h  ;  as,  meus,  traho.     Some  excep- 
tions occur,  chiefly  in  proper  names  derived  from  the  Greek ; 
as,  Aeneas. 

NOTE. —  Occasionally  we  meet  with  vowels  that  are  sometimes  long,  sometimes 
short.  Such  vowels  are  called  common.  The  variation  appears  only  in  poetry. 
Examples  are  the  first  vowel  in  Diana,  6he. 

1  In  this  book,  long  vowels  are  indicated  by  a  horizontal  line  above  them ;  as, 
a,  I,  6,  etc.  Vowels  not  thus  marked  are  short.  Occasionally  a  curve  is  set  above 
short  vowels ;  as,  S,  ii. 


Accent.  5 

B.    Quantity  of  Syllables. 

Syllables  are  distinguished  as  long  or  short  according  to  the  length 
of  time  required  for  their  pronunciation.  Their  quantity  is  governed 
by  the  following  principles  :  — 

1.  A  syllable  is  long,1  — 

a)  if  it  contains  a  long  vowel ;  as,  mater,  magnus,  dms. 

b)  if  it  contains  a  diphthong  ;  as,  causae,  foedus. 

c)  if  it  contains  a  short  vowel  followed  by  x,  z,  or  any  two  con- 
sonants (except  a  mute  with  1  or  r) ;  as,  axis,  gaza,  resto. 

2.  A  syllable  is  short,  if  it  contains  a  short  vowel  followed  by  a 
vowel  or  by  a  single  consonant ;  as,  mea,  amat. 

3.  Sometimes  a  syllable  varies  in  quantity,  viz.  when  its  vowel  is 
short  and  is  followed  by  a  mute  with  1  or  r,  i.e.  by  pi,  cl,  tl ;  pr,  cr, 
tr,  etc.;  as,  £gri,  volticris.'2     Such  syllables  are  called  common.     In 
prose  they  were  regularly  short,  but  in  verse  they  might  be  treated  as 
long  at  the  option  of  the  poet. 

NOTE.  —  These  distinctions  of  long  and  short  are  not  arbitrary 
and  artificial,  but  are  purely  natural.  Thus,  a  syllable  containing  a 
short  vowel  followed  by  two  consonants,  as  ng,  is  long,  because  such 
a  syllable  requires  more  time  for  its  pronunciation ;  while  a  syllable 
containing  a  short  vowel  followed  by  one  consonant  is  short,  because 
it  takes  less  time  to  pronounce  it.  In  case  of  the  common  syllables, 
the  mute  and  the  liquid  blend  so  easily  as  to  produce  a  combination 
which  takes  scarcely  more  time  than  a  single  consonant.  Yet  by  sepa- 
rating the  two  elements  (as  ag-ri)  the  poets  were  able  to  use  such 
syllables  as  long. 

ACCENT. 

6.  i.  Words  of  two  syllables  are  accented  upon  the  first ;  as,  t^git, 
morem. 

2.  Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  accented  upon  the  penult 
(next  to  the  last)  if  that  is  a  long  syllable,  otherwise  upon  the  ante- 
penult (second  from  the  last) ;  as,  amavi,  amantis,  miserum. 

3.  The  enclitics  -que,  -ne,  -ve,  -ce,  -met,  -dum  always  throw  an 
accent  back  upon  the  preceding  syllable,  even  when  that  is  short ;  as, 
miseraque,  eg6met,  age'dum. 

4.  Sometimes  the  final  -e  of  -ne  and  -ce  disappears,  but  without 
affecting  the  accent ;  as,  tant6n,  istfc,  illdc,  videhi  (for  videsne) . 

1  To  avoid  confusion,  the  quantity  of  syllables  is  not  indicated  by  any  sign. 

2  But  if  the  1  or  r  introduces  the  second  part  of  a  compound,  the  preceding 
syllable  is  always  long;  as,  abrumpo. 


6  Sounds,  Accent,   Quantity. 

5.  In  utraque,  each,  and  pler&que,  most,  -que  is  not  properly  an 
enclitic ;   yet  these  words  accent  the  penult,  owing  to  the  influence 
of  their  other  cases,  —  ute'rque,  utriimque,  plenimque. 

6.  But  in  other  words,  -que  does  not  throw  back  an  accent  unless 
it  is  a  true  enclitic,  meaning  and.    Thus,  regularly,  denique,  lindique, 
utique,  itaque  ;  but  if  itaque  means  and  .  .  .  so  (-que  being  enclitic), 
it  is  accented  itaque. 

VOWEL   CHANGES.1 

7.  i.    In  Compounds,— 

a)  g  before  a  single  consonant  becomes  I ;  as,  — 

colligo        for    con-lego. 

b)  a  before  a  single  consonant  becomes  i ;  as,  — 

adigo  for    ad-ago. 

c)  3.  before  two  consonants  becomes  £  ;  as,  — 

expers        for    ex-pars . 
d)    ae  becomes  I ;  as,  — 

couquiro    for    con-quaero 
e)    au  becomes  u,  sometimes  o  ;  as,  — 

conclude  for    con-claud5 ; 
explSdo     for    ex-plaudo. 

2.  Contraction.    Concurrent  vowels  were  frequently  contracted  into 
one  long  vowel.    The  first  of  the  two  vowels  regularly  prevailed ;  as,  — 

tres        for  tre-es ;  copia    for  co-opia ; 

malo      for  ma(v)elo ;  cogo      for  co-ago ; 

amasti  for  ama(v)isti;  com5    for  co-emo ; 

debeo    for  de(h)abeo ;  junior   for  ju(v)enior. 

nil          for  nihil ; 

3.  Parasitic  Vowels.     In  the  environment  of  liquids  and  nasals 
a  parasitic  vowel  sometimes  develops  ;  as,  — 

vinculum  for  earlier  vinclum. 
So  periculum,  saeculum. 

4.  Syncope.     Sometimes  a  vowel  drops  out  by  syncope;  as, — 

ardor  for  aridor  (cf.  aridus) ; 
valde  for  valide  (cf.  validus). 


1  Only  the  simplest  and  most  obvious  of  these  are  here  treated. 


Peculiarities  of  Orthography. 


CONSONANT   CHANGES.1 

8.  i.    Rhotacism.    An  original  s  between  vowels  became  r  ;  as, — 

arbos,  Gen.  arboris  (for  arbosis) ; 
genus,  Gen.  generis  (for  genesis)  ; 
dirimo  (for  dis-emo) . 

2.  dt,  tt,  ts  each  give  s  or  ss  ;  as,  — 

pensum  for  pend-tum ; 

versum  for  vert-tum ; 

miles  for  milet-s ; 

sessus  for  sedtus ; 

passus  for  pattus . 

3.  Final  consonants  were  often  omitted ;  as,  — 

cor  for    cord ;  i 

lac  for    lact. 

4.  Assimilation  of  Consonants.    Consonants  are  often  assimilated 
to  a  following  sound.    Thus  :  accurro  (adc-);  aggero  (adg-);  assero 
(ads-);    allatus    (adl-);    apporto   (adp-);    attuli   (adt-);    arrideo 
(adr-);  affero  (adf-);  occurro  (obc-);  siipponS  (subp-);   offero 
(obf-);  corruo  (comr-);  collatus  (coml-);  etc. 

5.    Partial  Assimilation.      Sometimes  the   assimilation   is   only 
partial.     Thus :  — 

a)  b  before  s  or  t  becomes  p  ;  as, — 

scrips!  (scrib-si),  scriptum  (scrib-tum). 

b)  g  before  s  or  t  becomes  c  ;  as,  — 
actus  (ag-tus). 

c)  m  before  a  dental  or  guttural  becomes  n  ;  as,  — 
eundem  (eum-dem)  ;       prmceps  (prim-ceps) . 

PECULIARITIES   OF   ORTHOGRAPHY. 

9.  Many  words  have  variable  orthography. 

i.     Sometimes  the  different  forms  belong  to  different  periods  of  the 
language.    Thus,  quom,  voltus,  volnus,  volt,  etc.,  were  the  prevailing 

1  Only  the  simplest  and  most  obvious  of  these  are  here  treated. 


8  Sounds,  Accent,   Quantity. 

forms  almost  down  to  the  Augustan  Age ;  after  that,  cum,  vultus, 
vulnus,  vult,  etc.  So  optumus,  maxumus,  lubet,  lubido,  etc.,  down 
to  about  the  same  era ;  later,  optimus,  maximus,  libet,  libido,  etc. 

2.  In  some  words  the  orthography  varies  at  one  and  the  same 
period  of  the  language.     Examples  are  exspecto,  expects  ;  exsisto, 
existo  ;  epistula,  epistola  ;  adulescens,  adolescens  ;  paulus,  paul- 
lus ;    cottidie,  cotidie ;    and,  particularly,  prepositional  compounds, 
which,  even  in  those  cases  where  actual  assimilation  took  place  in  the 
spoken  language  (§  8.  4),  often  make  a  concession  to  the  etymology  in 
the  spelling ;  as,  — 

ad-gero       or  aggero ;  ad-sero         or  assero ; 

ad-licio      or  alliciS ;  in-latus         or  illatus ; 

ad-rogans  or  arrogans  ;          sub-moveo  or  summoveo  ; 

and  many  others. 

3.  Compounds  of jacio  were  usually  written  eicio,  deicio,  adicio, 
obicio,  etc.,  but  were  probably  pronounced  as  though  written  adjicio, 
objicio,  etc. 

4.  Adjectives  and  nouns  in  -quus,  -quum ;    -vus,  -vum ;    -uus, 
-uum  preserved  the  earlier  forms   in  -quos,  -quom ;    -vos,  -vom ; 
-uos,  -uom,  down  through  the  Ciceronian  age ;    as,  antiques,  aiiti- 
quom  ;    saevos  ;    perpetuos  ;    equos  ;    servos.      Similarly  verbs  in 
the   3d   plural   present    indicative    exhibit    the    terminations   -quont, 
-quontur ;  -vont,  -vontur ;  -uont,  -uontur,  for  the  same  period ;  as, 
relinquont,  loquontur  ;  vivont,  metuont. 

The  older  spelling,  while  generally  followed  in  editions  of  Plautus 
and  Terence,  has  not  yet  been  adopted  in  our  prose  texts. 


PART   II. 


INFLECTIONS. 


10.  The  Parts  of  Speech   in   Latin   are   the   same   as 
in    English,    viz.    Nouns,    Adjectives,    Pronouns,    Verbs, 
Adverbs,    Prepositions,    Conjunctions,    and    Interjections; 
but  the  Latin  has  no  article. 

11.  Of  these  eight  parts  of  speech  the  first  four  are 
capable  of  Inflection,  i.e.  of  undergoing  change  of  form 
to  express  modifications  of  meaning.     In  case  of  Nouns, 
Adjectives,  and  Pronouns,  this  process  is  called  Declen- 
sion ;  in  case  of  Verbs,  Conjugation. 


CHAPTER  I.  —  Declension. 

A.    NOUNS. 

12.  A  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  person,  place,  thing,  or 
quality ;  as,  Caesar,  Caesar ;  Roma,  Rome ;  penna,  feather ; 
virtus,  courage. 

1.  Nouns  are  either  Proper  or  Common.     Proper  nouns  are  perma- 
nent names  of  persons  or  places ;   as,  Caesar,  Roma.     Other  nouns 
are  Common;  as,  penna,  virtus. 

2.  Nouns  are  also  distinguished  as  Concrete  or  Abstract. 

a)    Concrete  nouns  are  those  which  designate  something  having 
material  substance;  as,  mons,  mountain]  pea,  foot. 
9 


io  Inflections. 

Under  concrete  nouns  are  included,  also,  collective  nouns  ; 
as,  legio,  legion ;  comitatus,  retinue. 

&)    Abstract  nouns  designate  qualities ;  as,  constantia,  stead- 
fastness ;  paupertas,  poverty. 


GENDER   OF   NOUNS. 

13.  There  are  three  Genders,  —  Masculine,  Feminine, 
and  Neuter.     Gender  in  Latin  is  either  natural  or  gram- 
matical. 

Natural  Gender. 

14.  The  gender  of  nouns  is  natural  when  it  is  based 
upon  sex.     Natural  gender  is  confined  entirely  to  names 
of  persons  ;  and  these  are  — 

1 .  Masculine,  if  they  denote  males  ;  as,  — 

nauta,  sailor ;  agricola,  farmer. 

2.  Feminine,  if  they  denote  females ;  as, — 

mater,  mother;  regma,  queen. 

Grammatical  Gender. 

15.  Grammatical  gender  is  determined  not  by  sex,  but 
by  the  general  signification  of  the  word,  or  the  ending  of 
its  Nominative  Singular.     By  grammatical  gender,  nouns 
denoting  things  or  qualities  are  often  Masculine  or  Femi- 
nine, simply  by  virtue  of  their  signification  or  the  ending 
of  the  Nominative  Singular.     The  following  are  the  general 
principles  for  determining  grammatical  gender :  — 

A.    Gender  determined  by  Signification. 

1.  Names  of  Rivers,  Winds,  and  Months   are    Mascu- 
line ;  as,  — 

Sequana,  Seine;  Eurus,  east  wind;  Aprilis,  April. 

2.  Names    of    Trees,   and    such    names    of    Countries, 
Towns,  and  Islands  as  end  in  -us,  are  Feminine  ;    as,  — 
quercus,  oak-,  Pontus,  Pontus;  Corinthus,  Corinth;  Rhodus,  Rhodes. 


Number.  —  Cases.  1 1 

Other  names  of  countries,  towns,  and  islands  follow  the  gender  of 
their  endings  (see  B,  below) ;  as,  — 

Delphi,  m. ;  Leuctra,  n. ;  Latium,  n. ;  Tibur,  n. ;  Carthago,  f. 

3.    Indeclinable  nouns  are  Neuter ;  as,  — 
nihil,  nothing;  nefas,  wrong. 

NOTE.  —  Exceptions  to  the  above  principles  sometimes  occur ;  as,  Allia  (the 
river),  f. 

B.    Gender  determined  by  Ending  of  Nominative  Singular. 

The  gender  of  other  nouns  is  determined  by  the  ending 
of  the  Nominative  Singular.1 

NOTE  i .  —  Common  Gender.  Certain  nouns  are  sometimes  Mascu- 
Une,  sometimes  Feminine.  Thus,  sacerdos  may  mean  either  priest  or 
priestess,  and  is  Masculine  or  Feminine  accordingly.  So  also  civis, 
citizen ;  parens,  parent ;  etc.  The  gender  of  such  nouns  is  said  to  be 
common.  • 

NOTE  2. —  Names  of  animals  usually  have  grammatical  gender, 
according  to  the  ending  of  the  Nominative  Singular,  but  the  one 
form  may  designate  either  the  male  or  female;  as,  anser,  m.,  goose 
or  gander.  So  vulpes,  f.,fox;  aquila,  f.,  eagle. 

NUMBER. 

16.  The  Latin  has  two  Numbers,  —  the  Singular  and 
Plural.      The   Singular  denotes   one   object;   the    Plural, 
more  than  one. 

CASES. 

17.  There  are  six  Cases  in  Latin  :  — 

Nominative,  Case  of  Subject ; 

Genitive,  Objective  with  of; 

Dative,  Objective  with  to  or  for ; 

Accusative,  Case  of  Direct  Object ; 

Vocative,  Case  of  Address ; 

Ablative,  Objective  with  by,  from,  in,  with. 

1  The  great  majority  of  all  Latin  nouns  come  under  this  category.  The  prin- 
ciples for  determining  their  gender  are  given  under  the  separate  declensions. 


1 2  Inflections. 

1.  LOCATIVE.     Vestiges  of  another  case,  the  Locative  (denoting 
place  where),  occur  in  names  of  towns  and  in  a  few  other  words. 

2.  OBLIQUE  CASES.     The  Genitive,  Dative,  Accusative,  and  Abla- 
tive are  called  Oblique  Cases. 

3.  STEM  AND  CASE-ENDINGS.     The  different  cases  are  formed  by 
appending  certain   case-endings   to   a  fundamental   part   called   the 
Stem.1     Thus,  portam  (Accusative  Singular)  is  formed  by  adding 
the  case-ending  -m  to  the  stem  porta-.     But  in  most  cases  the  final 
vowel  of  the  stem  has  coalesced  so  closely  with  the  actual  case-ending 
that  the  latter  has  become  more  or  less  obscured.     The  apparent  case- 
ending  thus  resulting  is  called  a  termination. 


THE   FIVE   DECLENSIONS. 

18.  There  are  five  Declensions  in  Latin,  distinguished 
from  each  other  by  the  final  letter  of  the  Stem,  and  also 
by  the  Termination  of  the  Genitive  Singular,  as  follows  :  — 

DECLENSION.  FINAL  LETTER  OF  STEM.  GEN.  TERMINATION. 

First  a  -ae 

Second  6  -I 

Third  \  *  -is 

/  Some  consonant 

Fourth  ti  -us 

Fifth  e  -ei 


Cases  alike  in  Form. 

19.  i.  The  Vocative  is  regularly  like  the  Nominative,  except  in 
the  Singular  of  nouns  in  -us  of  the  Second  Declension. 

2.  The  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  are  always  alike. 

3.  In  Neuters  the  Accusative  and  Nominative  are  always  alike,  and 
in  the  Plural  end  in  -a. 

4.  In  the  Third,  Fourth,  and  Fifth  Declensions,  the  Accusative 
Plural  is  regularly  like  the  Nominative. 

1  The  Stem  is  often  derived  from  a  more  primitive  form,  called  the  Root. 
Thus,  the  stem  porta-  goes  back  to  the  root  per-,  por-.  Roots  are  mono- 
syllabic. The  addition  made  to  a  root  to  form  a  stem  is  called  a  Suffix.  Thus 
in  porta-  the  suffix  is  -ta-. 


First  Declension.  13 

FIRST   DECLENSION. 
a-S  terns. 

20.  Pure  Latin  nouns  of  the  First  Declension  regu- 
larly end,  in  the  Nominative  Singular,  in  -&,  weakened 
from  -a,  and  are  of  the  Feminine  Gender.  They  are 
declined  as  follows  :  — 

Porta,  gate ;  stem,  portS-. 

SINGULAR. 

CASES.  MEANINGS.  TERMINATIONS. 

Nom.   porta  a  gate  (as  subject)  -a 

Gen.     portae  of  a  gate  -ae 

Dat.     portae  to  or  far  a  gate  -ae 

Ace.      portam  a  gate  (as  object)  -am 

Voc.      porta  O  gate !  -5. 

Abl.      porta  with,  by,  from,  in  a  gate        -a 


-ae 

-arum 

-is 

-as 

-ae 

-is 

i .    The  Latin  has  no  article,  and  porta  may  mean  either  a  gate  or 
the  gate ;  and  in  the  Plural,  gates  or  the  gates. 

I 

Peculiarities  of  Nouns  of  the  First  Declension. 

21.    i.    EXCEPTIONS  IN  GENDER.    Nouns  denoting  males  are  Mascu- 
line; as,  nauta,  sailor;  agricola,  farmer;  also  Hadria,  Adriatic  Sea. 
2..    Rare  Case-Endings, — 

a)  An  old  form  of  the  Genitive  Singular  in  -as  is  preserved  in 
the  combination  pater  f amilias,  father  of  a  family ;  also 
in  mater  f  amilias,  filius  f  amilias,  filia  f  amilias.     But  the 
regular  form  of  the  Genitive  in  -ae  is  also  admissible  in 
these  expressions  ;  as,  pater  familiae. 

b)  In  poetry  a  Genitive  in  -ai  also  occurs  ;  as,  aulai. 


PLURAL. 

Nom. 

portae 

gates  (as  subject) 

Gen. 

portarum 

of  gates 

Dat. 

portis 

to  or  for  gates 

Ace. 

portas 

gates  (as  object) 

Voc. 

portae 

O  gates! 

Abl. 

portis 

with,  by,  from,  in  gates 

14  Inflections. 

c)    The  Locative  Singular  ends  in  -ae  ;  as,  RSmae,  at  Rome. 

d)  A  Genitive  Plural  in  -urn  instead  of -arum  sometimes  occurs  ; 
as,  Dardanidum  instead  of  Dardanidarum.  This  termina- 
tion -um  is  not  a  contraction  of  -arum,  but  represents  an 
entirely  different  case-ending. 

e)  Besides  the  regular  ending  -is,  we  find  also  -abus  in  the 
Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  of  dea,  goddess,  and  filia,  daugh- 
ter, especially  when  it  is  important  to  distinguish  these  nouns 
from  the  corresponding  forms  of  deus,  god,  and  films,  son. 
A  few  other  words  sometimes  have  the  same  peculiarity ;  as, 
libertabus  (from  liberta,  freedwomari),  equabus  (niares\ 
to  avoid  confusion  with  libertis  (from  libertus,  freedmari) 
and  equis  (from  equus,  horse). 

Greek  Nouns. 

22.  These  end  in  -e  (Feminine);  -as  and-es  (Masculine). 
In  the  Plural  they  are  declined  like  regular  Latin  nouns 
of  the  First  Declension.  In  the  Singular  they  are  declined 
as  follows  :  — 

Archias,  Archias.     Epitome,  epitome.      Cometes,  comet. 
Nom.   Archias  epitome  cometes 

Gen.     Archiae  epitomes  cometae 

Dat.     Archiae  epitomae  cometae 

Ace.      Archiam  (or  -an)     epitomen  cometen 

Voc.      Archia  epitome  comete  (or  -3.) 

Abl.      Archia  epitome  comete  (or  -a) 

1 .  But  most  Greek  nouns  in  -e  become  regular  Latin  nouns  in  -a, 
and  are  declined  like  porta ;   as,  grammatica,  grammar ;  musica, 
music;  rhetorica,  rhetoric. 

2.  Some  other  peculiarities  occur,  especially  in  poetry. 


SECOND   DECLENSION. 
d-S  terns. 

23.  Pure  Latin  nouns  of  the  Second  Declension  end 
in  -us,  -er,  -ir,  Masculine ;  -um,  Neuter.  Originally  -us  in 
the  Nominative  of  the  Masculines  was  -os,  and  -um  of  the 
Neuters  -om.  So  also  in  the  Accusative. 


Second  Declension. 
Nouns  in  -us  and  -um  are  declined  as  follows :  — 


Hortus,  garden  ; 
stem,  hort6-. 

SINGULAR. 

Bellum,  war  ; 
stem,  bel!6-. 

TERMINATION. 

TERMINATION. 

Nom.   hortus 

-US 

bellum 

-um 

Gen.     horti 

-1 

belli 

-I 

Dat.     horto 

-6 

bellS 

-6 

Ace.      hortum 

-um 

bellum 

-um 

Voc.      horte 

-e 

bellum 

-um 

Abl.      horto 

-5 

bellS 

-6 

PLURAL. 

Nom.    horti 

-1 

bella 

-a 

Gen.     hortorum 

-orum 

bellorum 

-drum 

Dat.     hortis 

-is 

bellis 

-is 

Ace.      hortos 

-5s 

bella 

-a 

Voc.      horti 

-I 

bella 

-a 

Abl.      hortis 

-is 

bellis 

-is 

Nouns  in  -er  and  -ir  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 

Puer,  boy  ; 
stem,  puerfi-. 

Ager,  field  '; 
stem,  agr6-. 

Vir,  man; 
stem,  virS-. 

SINGULAR. 

TERMINATION. 

Nom.   puer 
Gen.     pueri 
Dat.     puero 
Ace.      puerum 
Voc.      puer 
Abl.      puero 

ager 
agri 
agro 
agrum 
ager 
agro 

vir 
viri 
viro 
virum 
vir 
viro 

Wanting 
-1 
-6 
-um 

Wanting 

-5 

PLURAL. 

Nom.   pueri 
Gen.     puerorum 
Dat.     pueris 
Ace.      pueros 
Voc.      pueri 
Abl.      pueris 

agri 
agrSrum 
agris 
agros 
agri 
agris 

viri 
virorum 
viris 
viros 
viri 
viris 

-I 
-orum 
-is 
-6s 
-I 
-is 

i.    Note  that  in  words  of  the  type  of  puer  and  vir  the  final  vowel 
of  the  stem  has  disappeared  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular. 


1 6  Inflections, 

In  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  of  ager,  the  stem  is  further 
modified  by  the  development  of  e  before  r. 

2.  The  following  nouns  in  -er  are  declined  like  puer :  adulter, 
adulterer',  gener,  son-in-law,  Liber,  Bacchus ;  socer,  father-in-law, 
vesper,  evening;  and  compounds  in  -fer  and  -ger,  as  signifer,  armiger. 

Nouns  in  -vus,  -vum,  -quus. 

24.  Nouns  ending  in  the  Nominative  Singular  in  -vus,  -vum, 
-quus,  exhibited  two  types  of  inflection  in  the  classical  Latin,  —  an 
earlier  and  a  later,  —  as  follows  :  — 

Earlier  Inflection  (including  Caesar  and  Cicero). 

Servos,  m.,  slave.      Aevom,  n.,  age.  Equos,  m.,  horse. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom.    servos                           aevom  equos 

Gen.      servi                              aevi  equi 

Dat.      servo                             aevo  equo 

Ace.      servom                          aevom  equom 

Voc.       serve                             aevom  eque 

Abl.      servo                            aevo  equo 

Later  Inflection  (after  Cicero). 

SINGULAR. 

Nom.  servus  aevum  equus 

Gen.  servi  aevi  equi 

Dat.  servo  aevo  equo 

Ace.  servum  aevum  equum 

Voc.  serve  aevum  eque 

Abl.  servo  aevo  equo 

i.    The  Plural  of  these  nouns  is  regular,  and  always  uniform. 


Peculiarities  of  Inflection  in  the  Second  Declension. 

25.  i.  Proper  names  in  -ius  regularly  form  the  Genitive  Singular 
in  -I  (instead  of  -ii),  and  the  Vocative  Singular  in  -I  (for  -ie);  as, 
Vergili,  of  Vergil,  or  O  Vergil  (instead  of  Vergilii,  Vergilie).  In 
such  words  the  accent  stands  upon  the  penult,  even  though  that  be 
short. 

2.  Nouns  in  -ius  and  -ium,  until  after  t\ie  beginning  of  the  reign 
of  Augustus  (31  B.C.),  regularly  formed  the  Genitive  Singular  in  -I 
(instead  of  -ii) ;  as,  — 


Second  Declension.  17 

Nom.   ingenium         films 
Gen.     ing^ni  fill 

These  Genitives  accent  the  penult,  even  when  it  is  short. 

3.  Filius  forms  the  Vocative  Singular  in  -I  (for  -ie);   viz.,  fill, 
O  son! 

4.  Deus,  god,  lacks  the  Vocative  Singular.     The  Plural  is  inflected 

as  follows  :  — 

Nom.   di  (dei) 

Gen.  deorum  (deum) 

Dat.  dis  (dels) 

Ace.  decs 

Voc.  di  (del) 

Abl.  dis  (dels) 

5.  The  Locative  Singular  ends  in  -I;  as,  Corinthi,  at  Corinth. 

6.  The  Genitive  Plural  has  -urn,  instead  of  -orum,  — 

a)  in  words  denoting  money  and  measure  ;    as,  talentum,  of 
talents,  medium,  of  pecks. 

b)  in  duumvir,  triumvir,  decemvir;  as,  duumvirum. 

c)  sometimes  in  other  words  ;    as,  liberum,  of  the  children  ; 
socium,  of  the  allies. 

Exceptions  to  Gender  in  the  Second  Declension. 

26.    i.  The  following  nouns  in  -us  are  Feminine  by  exception  :  — 

a)  Names  of  countries,  towns,  islands,  trees  —  according  to 
the  general  rule  laid  down  in  §  15.  2. 

b)  Five  special  words,  — 

alvus,  belly; 
carbasus,  flax-, 


humus,  ground; 
vannus,  winnowing-fan  . 

c)    A  few  Greek  Feminines  ;  as,  — 
atomus,  atom  ; 
diphthongus,  diphthong. 

2.    The  following  nouns  in  -us  are  Neuter  :  — 
pelagus,  sea  ; 
virus,  poison  ; 
vulgus,  crowd. 
c 


1 8  Inflections. 

Greek  Nouns  of  the  Second  Declension. 

27.  These  end  in  -os,  -6s,  Masculine  or  Feminine ;  and 
-on,  Neuter.  They  are  mainly  proper  names,  and  are 
declined  as  follows  :  — 

Barbitos,  m.  and  f.,          Androgeos,  m.,  Ilion,  n., 

lyre.  Androgeos.  Troy. 

Nom.  barbitos  Androgeos  Ilion 

Gen.  barbiti  Androgeo,  -I  Ilii 

Dat.  barbito  Androgeo  Ilio 

Ace.  barbiton  Androgeo,  -on  Ilion 

Voc.  barbite  Androgeos  Ilion 

Abl.  barbito  Androgeo  Ilio 

1.  Nouns  in  -os  sometimes  form  the  Accusative  Singular  in  -um, 
instead  of  -on  ;  as,  Delum,  Delos. 

2.  The  Plural  of  Greek  nouns,  when  it  occurs,  is  usually  regular. 

3.  For  other  rare  forms  of  Greek  nouns  the  lexicon  may  be  con- 
sulted. 


THIRD   DECLENSION. 

28.  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension  end  in  -a,  -e,  -I,  -6, 
-y,  -c,  -1,  -n,  -r,  -s,  -t,  -x.     The  Third  Declension  includes 
several  distinct  classes  of  Stems,  — 

I.    Pure  Consonant-Stems. 
II.    i-Stems. 

III.  Consonant-Stems    which    have    partially    adapted 
themselves  to  the  inflection  of  I-Stems. 

IV.  A  very  few  Stems  ending  in  a  long  vowel  or  a 
diphthong. 

V.    Irregular  Nouns. 

I.    Consonant  Stems. 

29.  i.    In  these  the  stem  appears  in  its  unaltered  form 
in  all  the  oblique  cases ;  so  that  the  actual  case-endings 
may  be  clearly  recognized. 


Third  Declension.  19 

2.     Consonant-Stems  fall  into  several  natural  subdivisions,  according 
as  the  stem  ends  in  a  Mute,  Liquid,  Nasal,  or  Spirant. 


A.    Mute-Stems. 

30.  Mute-Stems  may  end,  — 

1.  In  a  Labial  (b  or  p);  as,  trab-s  ;  prmcep-s. 

2.  In  a  Guttural  (g  or  c)  ;  as,  remex  (remeg-s)  ;  dux  (duc-s). 

3.  In  a  Dental  (d  or  t);  as,  lapis  (lapid-s);  miles  (milet-s). 

i.   STEMS  IN  A  LABIAL  MUTE  (b,  p). 

31.  Trabs,  f.,  beam.          Princeps,  m.,  chief. 


Nom.  trabs 

Gen.  trabis 

Dat.  trabi 

Ace.  trabem 

Voc.  trabs 

Abl.  trabe 

Nom.  trabes 

Gen.  trabum 

Dat.  trabibus 

Ace.  trabes 

Voc.  trabes 

Abl.  trabibus 


SINGULAR. 

princeps 

principis 

prmcipi 

principem 

princeps 

prmcipe 

PLURAL. 

principes 

principum 

principibus 

principes 

principes 

principibus 


TERMINATION. 
-s 
-is 
-I 

-em 
-s 
-e 


-es 

-um 

-ibus 

-es 

-es 

-ibus 


2.   STEMS  IN  A  GUTTURAL  MUTE  (g-,  c). 

32.     In  these  the  termination  -s  of  the  Nominative  Singular  unites 
with  the  guttural,  thus  producing  -x. 

Remex,  m.,  rower. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Nom.   remex 

remiges 

Gen.     remigis 

remigum 

Dat.     remigi 

remigibus 

Ace.      remigem 

remiges 

Voc.      remex 

remiges 

Abl.      remige 

remigibus 

Dux,  c.,  leader. 

SINGULAR.     PLURAL. 

duces 

ducum 

ducibus 

duces 

ducgs 


dux 

ducis 

duel 

ducem 

dux 

duce 


ducibus 


20 


Inflections. 


3.   STEMS  IN  A  DENTAL  MUTE  (d,  t). 

33.    In  these  the  final  d  or  t  of  the  stem  disappears  in  the  Nomi- 
native Singular  before  the  ending  -s. 


Lapis,  m.,  stone. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Norn,   lapis  lapides 

Gen.     lapidis  lapidum 

Dai.     lapidi  lapidibus 

Ace.      lapidem  lapides 

Voc.      lapis  lapides 

Abl.      lapide  lapidibus 


Miles,  m.,  soldier. 

SINGULAR. 

miles 

militis 

militi 

militem 

miles 

mllite 


PLURAL. 

milites 

militum 

mllitibus 

milites 

milites 

mllitibus 


B.    Liquid  Stems. 
-34.    These  end  in  -1  or  -r. 


Vigil,  m., 

watchman. 


Nom.  vigil 

Gen.  vigilis 

Dat.  vigili 

Ace.  vigilem 

Voc.  vigil 

Abl.  vigile 


Nom.  vigiles 

Gen.  vigilum 

Dat.  vigilibus 

Ace.  vigiles 

Voc.  vigiles 

Abl.  vigilibus 


Victor,  m., 

conqueror. 

SINGULAR. 

victor 

victoris 

victor! 

victorem 

victor 

victore 

PLURAL. 

victores 

victorum 

victoribus 

victores 

victores 

victoribus 


Aequor,  n., 

sea. 


aequor 

aequoris 

aequori 

aequor 

aequor 

aequore 


aequora 

aequorum 

aequoribus 

aequora 

aequora 

aequoribus 


1 .  Masculine  and  Feminine  stems  ending  in  a  liquid  form  the  Nomi- 
native and  Vocative  Singular  without  termination. 

2.  The  termination  is  also  lacking  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative, 
and  Vocative  Singular  of  all  neuters  of  the  Third  Declension. 


Third  Declension. 


21 


C.    Nasal  Stems. 


35.     These  end  in  -n.1 

Leo,  m.,  lion. 

SINGULAR.   PLURAL. 


Nom.   leo 
Gen.     leonis 
leoni 
leonem 
leo 
leone 


Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 


leones 

leonum 

leonibus 

leones 

leones 

leonibus 


Nomen,  n.,  name. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

nomen  nomina 

nominis  nominum 

nomini  nominibus 

nomen  nomina 

nomen  nomina 

nomine  nominibus 


36.    Mos,  m.,  custom. 


Nom.  mos 

Gen.  moris 

Dat.  mori 

Ace.  morem 

Voc.  mos 

Abl.  more 


Nom.  mores 

Gen.  morum 

Dat.  moribus 

Ace.  mores 

Voc.  mores 

Abl.  moribus 


D.    B-Stems. 
Genus,  n.,  race. 

SINGULAR. 
genus 
generis 
generi 
genus 
genus 
genere 

PLURAL. 
genera 
generum 
generibus 
genera 
genera 
generibus 


Honor,  m.,  honor. 

honor 

honoris 

honor! 

honorem 

honor 

honore 


honores 

honorum 

honoribus 

honores 

honores 

honoribus 


i.  Note  that  the  final  s  of  the  stem  becomes  r  (between  vowels) 
in  the  oblique  cases.  In  a  few  words  (honor,  color,  labor,  arbor) 
the  r  of  the  oblique  cases  has.  by  analogy,  crept  into  the  Nominative, 
displacing  the  earlier  s,  though  the  forms  honos,  colos,  etc.,  also  occur, 
particularly  in  early  Latin  and  in  poetry. 


1  There  is  only  one  stem  ending  in  -m,  —  hiems,  hiemis,  winter. 


22 


Inflections. 


II.     I-S  terns. 
A.    Masculine  and  Feminine  \-Stems. 

37.  These  regularly  end  in  -is  in  the  Nominative  Singu- 
lar, and  always  have  -ium  in  the  Genitive  Plural.  Originally 
the  Accusative  Singular  ended  in  -im,  the  Ablative  Singular 
in  -I,  and  the  Accusative  Plural  in  -is ;  but  these  endings 
have  been  largely  displaced  by  -em,  -e,  and  -es,  the  end- 
ings of  Consonant-Stems. 


38.   Twuti*,f.,c0ugb;  Ignis,  m.,fire; 
stem,  tussir.         stem,  igni-. 

Hostis,  c.,  enemy] 
stem,  hosti-. 

SINGULAR. 

TERMINATION. 

Nom. 

tussis 

Ignis 

hostis 

-is 

Gen. 

tussis 

ignis 

hostis 

-is 

Dat. 

tussi 

Igni 

host! 

-I 

Ace. 

tussim 

ignem 

hostem 

-im,  -em 

Voc. 

tussis 

Ignis 

hostis 

-is 

Abl. 

tussi 

Igni  or  -e 

hoste 

-e,-i 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

tusses 

Ignes 

hostes 

-es 

Gen. 

tussium 

Ignium 

hostium 

-ium 

Dat. 

tussibus 

Ignibus 

hostibus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

tussis  or  -es 

Ignis  or  -es 

hostis  or  -es 

-is,  -es 

Voc. 

tusses 

Ignes 

hostes 

-es 

Abl. 

tussibus 

Ignibus 

hostibus 

-ibus 

i .    To  the  same  class  belong  — 
*amussis,  rule.  corbis,  basket. 

apis,  bee. 

auris,  ear. 

avis,  bird. 

axis,  axle. 
*buris,  plough-beam. 

clavis,  key. 

collis,  hill. 


cratis,  hurdle. 
*febris,  fever. 
orbis,  circle. 
ovis,  sheep. 
pelvic,  basin. 
puppis,  stern. 
restis,  rope. 
and  many  others. 

Words  marked  with  a  star  have  Ace.  -im,  Abl.  -I.    Of  the  others,  many 
at  times  show  i-forms.    Town  and  river  names  in  -is  regularly  have  -im,  -I. 


scobis,  sawdust. 
*securis,  axe. 

sementis,  sowing. 
*sitis,  thirst. 

torris,  brand. 
*t«rris,  tower. 

trudis,  pole. 

vectis,  lever. 


Third  Declension.  23 

2.  Not  all  nouns  in  -is  are  i-Stems.     Some  are  genuine  consonant- 
stems,  and  have  the  regular  consonant  terminations  throughout,  nota- 
bly, canis,  dog;  juvenis,  youth  1 

3.  Some  genuine  i-Stems  have  become  disguised  in  the  Nominative 
Singular;  as,  pars,  part,  for  par(ti)s;  anas,  duck,  for  ana(ti)s;  so 
also  mors,  death]  dos,  dowry]  nox,  night]  sors,  lot]  meiis,  mind] 
and  some  others. 


B.    Neuter  \-Stems. 

39.  These  end  in  the  Nominative  Singular  in  -e,  -al,  and 
-ar.  They  always  have  -I  in  the  Ablative  Singular,  -ia  in 
the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative  Plural,  and  -ium 
in  the  Genitive  Plural,  thus  holding  more  steadfastly  to 
the  i-character  than  do  Masculine  and  Feminine  i-Stems. 

Sedlle,  seat]    Animal,  animal]     Calcar,  spur] 
stem,  sedili-.      stem,  animali-.      stem,  calcari-. 


Norn,  sedlle 

Gen.  sedilis 

Dat.  sedili 

Ace.  sedlle 

Voc.  sedlle 

AbL  sedili 


SINGULAR. 

TERMINATION. 

animal 

calcar 

Wanting 

animalis 

calcaris 

-is 

animali 

calcari 

-i 

animal 

calcar 

Wanting 

animal 

calcar 

Wanting 

animali 

calcari 

-1 

PLURAL. 

Norn. 

sedilia 

animalia 

calcaria 

-ia 

Gen. 

sedllium 

animalium 

calcarium 

-ium 

Dat. 

sedilibus 

animalibus 

calcaribus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

sedilia 

animalia 

calcaria 

-ia 

Voc. 

sedilia 

animalia 

calcaria 

-ia 

Abl. 

sedilibus 

animalibus 

calcaribus 

-ibus 

1.  In  most  words  of  this  class  the  final  -i  of  the  stem  is  lost  in  the 
Nominative  Singular ;  in  others  it  appears  as  -e. 

2.  Proper  names  in  -e  form  the  Ablative  Singular  in  -e ;  as,  SSracte, 
Soracte]  so  also  sometimes  mare,  sea. 


1  Mensis,  month,  originally  a  consonant-stem  (mens-),  has  in  the  Genitive 
Plural  both  mensium  and  mensum.    The  Accusative  Plural  is  menses. 


Inflections. 


III.    Consonant-Stems  that  have  partially  adapted  themselves 
to  the  Inflection  of  I-Stems. 

40.  Many  Consonant-Stems  have  so  far  adapted  them- 
selves to  the  inflection  of  i-stems  as  to  take  -ium  in  the 
Genitive  Plural,  and  -Is  in  the  Accusative  Plural.  Their 
true  character  as  Consonant-Stems,  however,  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  they  never  take  -im  in  the  Accusative  Singu- 
lar, or  -I  in  the  Ablative  Singular.  The  following  words 
are  examples  of  this  class  :  — 

Caedes,  f.,  slaughter;      Arx,  f.,  citadel;      Linter,  f.,  skiff; 
stem,  caed-.  stem,  arc-.  stem,  lintr-. 


Nom.  caedes 

Gen.  caedis 

Dat.  caedi 

Ace.  caedem 

Voc.  caedes 

AbL  caede 


Nom.  caedes 

Gen.  caedium 

Dat.  caedibus 

Ace.  caedes,  -is 

Voc.  caedes 

Abl.  caedibus 


SINGULAR. 

arx 

arcis 

arci 

arcem 

arx 

arce 

PLURAL. 
arces 
arcium 
arcibus 
arces,  -is 
arces 
arcibus 


linter 

lintris 

lintri 

lintrem 

linter 

lintre 


lintres 

lintrium 

lintribus 

lintres,  -is 

lintres 

lintribus 


The  following  classes  of  nouns  belong  here  :  — 

a)  Nouns   in   -es,  with   Genitive   in   -is ;    as,   nubgs,   aedes, 
clades,  etc. 

b)  Many  monosyllables  in  -s  or  -x  preceded  by  one  or  more 
consonants ;  as,  urbs,  mons,  stirps,  lanx. 

c)  Most  nouns  in  -ns  and  -rs  ;  as,  aliens,  cohors. 

d)  Uter,  venter ;  fur,  Us,  mas,  mus,  nix ;  and  the  Plurals 
fauces,  penates,  Optimates,  Samnites,  Quirites. 

e)  Sometimes  nouns  in  -tas  with  Genitive  -tatis ;  as,  civitas, 
aetas. 


Third  Declension. 


IV.    Stems  in  -I,  -u,  and  Diphthongs. 


41. 


Vis,  f., 

Sus,  c., 

Bos,  c., 

Jupiter,  m., 

force  ; 

swine  ; 

ox,  cow  ; 

Jupiter  ; 

stem,  vi-  . 

stem,  su-. 

stem,  bou-. 

stem,  Jou-. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

vis 

SUS 

bos 

Jupiter 

Gen. 

vis 

suis 

bovis 

Jo  vis 

Dat. 

VI 

SUl 

bovi 

Jovi 

Ace. 

vim 

suem 

bovem 

Jovem 

Voc. 

vis 

sus 

bos 

Jupiter 

Abl. 

VI 

sue 

bove 

Jove 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

vires 

sues 

boves 

j  bovum 

Gen. 

virium 

suum 

(  boum 

Dat. 

viribus 

(  suibus 
1  subus 

j  bobus 
"/  bubus 

Ace. 

vires 

sues 

boves 

Voc. 

vires 

sues 

boves 

Abl. 

viribus 

)  suibus 
"i  subus 

j  bobus 
/  bubus 

1.  Notice  that  the  oblique  cases  of  sus  have  ti  in  the  root  syllable. 

2.  Grus  is  declined  like  sus,  except  that  the  Dative  and  Ablative 
Plural  are  always  gruibus. 

3.  Jupiter  is  for  Jou-pater,  and  therefore  contains  the  same  stem 
as  in  Jov-is,  Jov-i,  etc. 

4.  Navis  was  originally  a  diphthong  stem  ending  in  au-,  but  it  has 
passed  over  to  the  i-stems  (§  37). 


V.    Irregular  Nouns. 
42.    Senex,  m.,  old  man.        Caro,  i.,  flesh. 

SINGULAR. 
caro 


Nom.  senex 

Gen.  senis 

Dat.  seni 

Ace.  senem 

Voc.  senex 

Abl.  sene 


carnis 

carni 

carnem 

caro 

carne 


os,  n.,  bone. 


OS 

ossis 

ossi 

os 

OS 

osse 


26  Inflections. 


PLURAL. 

Nom. 

sengs 

carries 

ossa 

Gen. 

senum 

carnium 

ossium 

Dat. 

senibus 

carnibus 

ossibus 

Ace. 

series 

carries 

ossa 

Voc. 

series 

carries 

ossa 

Abl. 

senibus 

carnibus 

ossibus 

1.  Iter,  itineris,  n.,  way,  is  inflected  regularly  throughout  from  the  stem 
itiner-. 

2.  Supellex,  supellectilis,  f.,  furniture,  is  confined  to  the  Singular.    The 
oblique  cases  are  formed  from  the  stem  supellectil-.    The  Ablative  has  both 
-I  and  -e. 

3.  Jecur,  n.,  liver,  forms  its  oblique  cases  from  two  stems,  —  jecor-  and 
jecinor-.    Thus,  Gen.  jecoris  or  jecinoris. 

4.  Femur,  n.,  thigh,  usually  forms  its  oblique  cases  from  the  stem  femor-, 
but  sometimes  from  the  stem  femin-.    Thus,  Gen.  femoris  or  feminis. 


General  Principles  of  Gender  in  the  Third  Declension. 

43.  i.   Nouns  in -6, -or, -os, -er, -8s  are  Masculine. 

2.  Nouns  in  -as,  -es,  -is,  -ys,  -x,  -s  (preceded  by  a  consonant); 
-do,  -go  (Genitive  -inis) ;  -io  (abstract  and  collective),  -us  (Genitive 
-utis  or  -udis)  are  Feminine. 

3.  Nouns  ending  in  -a,  -e,  -i,  -y,  -c,  -1,  -n,  -t,  -ar,  -ur,  -tis  are 
Neuter. 

Chief  Exceptions  to  Gender  in  the  Third  Declension. 

44.  Exceptions  to  the  Rule  for  Masculines. 

1 .  Nouns  in  -5. 

a.    Feminine:  caro,y7^. 

2.  Nouns  in  -or. 

a.  Feminine  :  arbor,  tree. 

b.  Neuter :  aequor,  sea ;  cor,  heart ;  marmor,  marble. 

3.  Nouns  in  -6s. 

a.  Feminine  :  dos,  dowry. 

b.  Neuter:  os  (oris),  mouth 

4.  Nouns  in  -er. 

a.    Feminine  :  linter,  skiff. 


Third  Declension.  27 

b.    Neuter:  cadaver,  corpse;  iter,  way,;  tuber,  tumor;  uber, 
udder.     Also  botanical  names  in  -er ;  as,  acer,  maple. 

5.     Nouns  in  -6s. 

a.    Feminine  :  seges,  crop. 

45.  Exceptions  to  the  Rule  for  Feminines.  % 

1 .  Nouns  in  -as. 

a.  Masculine,  as,  an  as  (coin)  ;  vas,  bondsman. 

b.  Neuter :  vas,  vessel. 

2.  Nouns  in  -€s. 

a.    Masculine:  abies,y£r;  aries,  ram;  paries,  wall;  pes,/^/. 

3.  Nouns  in  -is. 

a.  Masculine:  all  nouns  in  -nis  and  -guis ;  as,  amnis,  river; 

ignis,  fire;  panis,  bread;  sanguis,  blood;  unguis,  nail. 
Also  — 

axis,  axle.  piscis,  fish. 

collis,  hill.  postis,  post. 

fascis,  btindle.  pulvis,  dust. 

lapis,  stone.  orbis,  circle. 

mensis,  month.  sentis,  brier. 

4.  Nouns  in  -x. 

a.    Masculine  :    apex,  peak ;   codex,  tree-trunk ;   grex,  flock ; 
imbrex,  tile;  pollex,  thumb;  vertex,  summit;  calix,  cup. 

5.  Nouns  in  -s  preceded  by  a  consonant. 

a.    Masculine  :  dens,  tooth ;  f 6ns,  fountain ;  mons,  mountain ; 
pons,  bridge. 

6.  Nouns  in  -do. 

a.    Masculine:  cardo,  hinge;  ordo,  order. 

46.  Exceptions  to  the  Rule  for  Neuters. 

1.  Nouns  in  -1. 

a.    Masculine  :  sol,  sun ;  sal,  salt. 

2.  Nouns  in  -n. 

a.    Masculine  :  pecten,  comb. 

3.  Nouns  in  -ur. 

a.    Masculine  :  vultur,  vulture. 

4.  Nouns  in  -us. 

a.    Masculine  :  lepus,  hare. 


28  Inflections. 

Greek  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension. 

47.    The  following  are  the  chief  peculiarities  of  these  :  — 

1 .  The  ending  -a  in  the  Accusative  Singular ;  as,  aethera,  aether ; 
Salamma,  Salamis. 

2.  The    ending   -Ss    in    the    Nominative    Plural ;    as,    Phryggs, 
Phrygians. 

3.  The    ending    -as    in    the    Accusative    Plural;     as,    Phrygas, 
Phrygians. 

.-4.     Proper  names  in  -as  (Genitive  -antis)  have  -a  in  the  Vocative 
Singular;  as,  Atlas  (Atlantis),  Vocative  Atla,  Atlas. 

5.  Neuters  in  -ma  (Genitive  -matis)  have  -is  instead  of  -ibus  in 
the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural ;  as,  poematis,  poems. 

6.  Orpheus,  and  other  proper  names  ending  in  -eus,  form   the 
Vocative  Singular  in  -eu   (Orpheu,  etc.).      But  in  prose  the  other 
cases  usually  follow  the  second  declension ;  as,  Orphei,  Orpheo,  etc. 

7.  Proper  names  in  -es,  like  Pericles,  form  the  Genitive  Singular 
sometimes  in  -is,  sometimes  in  -I ;  as,  Periclis  or  Pericli. 

8.  Feminine  proper  names  in  -6  have  -us  in  the  Genitive,  but  -6 
in  the  other  oblique  cases  ;  .as,  — 

Nom.   Dido  Ace.    Dido 

Gen.     Didus  Voc.     Dido 

Dat.     Dido  Abl.     Dido 

9.  The  regular  Latin  endings  often  occur  in  Greek  nouns. 


FOURTH   DECLENSION. 
iz-Stems. 

48.    Nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension  end  in  -us  Mascu- 
line, and  -u  Neuter.     They  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 

Fructus,  fruit.  Cornu,  horn. 

SINGULAR.     PLURAL.  SINGULAR.     PLURAL. 

Nom.  fructus  friictus  cornu  cornua 

Gen.  fructus  fructuum  cornus  cornuum 

Dat.  fructui  fructibus  cornu  cornibus 

Ace.  fructum  fructus  cornu  cornua 

Voc.  fructus  fructus  corirtt  cornua 

Abl.  fructu  fructibus  cornu  cornibus 


Fourth  Declension.  —  Fifth  Declension.  29 

Peculiarities  of  Nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension. 

49.  i.    Nouns  in  -us,  particularly  in  early  Latin,  often  form  the 
Genitive    Singular  in  -I,  following   the   analogy  of  nouns   in  -us   of 
the   Second    Declension;    as,  senati,  ornati.      This   is   usually  the 
case  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 

2.  Nouns  in  -us  sometimes  have  -u  in  the  Dative  Singular,  instead 
of  -ui ;  as,  f  ructu  (for  f  ructui) . 

3.  The  ending  -ubus,  instead  of  -ibus,  occurs  in  the  Dative  and 
Ablative  Plural  of  artus   (Plural),  limbs ;   tribus,  tribe;   and  in  dis- 
syllables in  -cus;    as,  artubus,  tribubus,  arcubus,  lacubus.      But 
with  the  exception  of  tribus,  all  these  words  admit  the  forms  in  -ibus 
as  well  as  those  in  -ubus. 

4.  Domus,  house,  is  declined  according  to  the  Fourth  Declension, 
but  has  also  the  following  forms  of  the  Second :  — 

domi  (locative),  at  home;  domum,  homewards,  to  one^s  home; 
domo,  from  home;  domos,  homewards,  to  their  (etc.)  homes. 

5.  The  only  Neuters  of  this  declension  in  common  use  are:  cornu, 
genii,  and  veru. 

Exceptions  to  Gender  in  the  Fourth  Declension. 

50.  The   following   nouns   in   -us   are   Feminine:    acus,   needle; 
domus,  house;   manus,  hand;   porticus,  colonnade;   tribus,  tribe; 
Idus  (Plural),  Ides. 

FIFTH   DECLENSION. 
e-Stems. 

51.  Nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension  end  in  -es,  and  are 
declined  as  follows  :  — 

Dies,  m.,  day.  Res,  f.,  thing. 

SINGULAR.   PLURAL.  SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Nom.  dies  dies-  res  res 

Gen.  die!  •  dierum  rel  rerum 

Dat.  die!  diebus  r5i  rebus 

Ace.  diem  dies  rem  res 

Voc.  dies  dies  res  res 

Abl.  die  diebus  re  rebus 


30  .Inflections. 


Peculiarities  of  Nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension. 

52.  i.    The   ending  of  the  Genitive  and  Dative   Singular  is  -e% 
instead  of  -61,  when  a  consonant  precedes  ;  as,  sp£i,  rei,  fidel. 

2,.  A  Genitive  ending  -I  (for  -Si)  is  found  in  plebi  (from  plebes  = 
plebs)  in  the  expressions  tribunus  plebi,  tribune  of  the  people,  and 
plebi  scitum,  decree  of  the  people;  sometimes  also  in  other  words. 

3.  -A  Genitive  and  Dative  form  in  -e  sometimes  occurs ;  as,  acie. 

4.  With  the  exception  of  dies  and  res,  most  nouns  of  the  Fifth 
Declension  are  not  declined  in  the  Plural.     But  acies,  series,  species, 
spes,  and  a  few  others,  are  used  in  the  Nominative  and  Accusative 
Plural. 

Gender  in  the  Fifth  Declension. 

53.  Nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension  are  regularly  Feminine,  except 
dies,  day,  and  meridies,  mid-day.     But  dies  is  sometimes  Feminine 
in  the  Singular,  particularly  when  it  means  an  appointed  day. 


DEFECTIVE   NOUNS. 

54.  Here  belong  - 

1 .  Nouns  used  in  the  Singular  only. 

2.  Nouns  used  in  the  Plural  only. 

3.  Nouns  used  only  in  certain  cases. 

4.  Indeclinable  Nouns. 

Nouns  used  in  the  Singular  only. 

55.  Many  nouns,  from  the  nature  of  their  signification, 
are  regularly  used  in  the  Singular  only.     Thus  :  — 

1 .  Proper  names  ;  as,  Cicero,  Cicero ;  Italia,  Italy. 

2.  Nouns  denoting  material;  as,  aes,  copper;  lac,  milk. 

3.  Abstract  nouns;   as,  ignorantia,  ignorance;  bonitas,  good- 
ness. 

4.  But  the  above  classes  of  words  are  sometimes  used  in  the  Plural. 
Thus :  - 

a)  Proper  names,  —  to  denote  different  members  of  a  family,  or 
specimens  of  a  type ;  as,  Cicerones,  the  Ciceros ;  Catones, 
men  like  Cato. 


Defective  Nouns.  31 

b)  Names  of  materials,  —  to  denote  objects  made  of  the  mate- 
rial, or  different  kinds  of  the  substance ;  as,  aera,  bronzes 
(i.e.  bronze  figures)  ;  ligna,  woods. 

c)  Abstract  nouns,  —  to  denote  instances  of  the  quality;   as, 
ignorantiae,  cases  of  ignorance. 

Nouns  used  in  the  Plural  only. 

56.  Here  belong  — 

1.  Many   geographical    names;     as,   Thebae,    Thebes ;    Leuctra, 
Leuctra;   Pompeji,  Pompeii. 

2.  Many  names  of  festivals;   as,  Megalesia,  the  Megalesian  fes- 
tival. 

3.  Many   special   words,   of  which    the   following   are    the    most 
important :  — 

angustiae,  narrow  pass.  manes,  spirits  of  the  dead. 

arma,  weapons.  minae,  threats. 

deliciae,  delight.  moenia,  city  walls. 

divitiae,  riches.  nuptiae,  marriage. 

Idus,  Ides.  poster!,  descendants. 

indutiae,  truce.  reliquiae,  remainder. 

msidiae,  ambush.  tenebrae,  darkness. 

ma  j  ores,  ancestors.  verbera,  blows. 

Also  in  classical  prose  regularly  — 

cervices,  neck.  nares,  nose. 

fides,  lyre.  viscera,  viscera. 

Nouns  used  only  in  Certain  Cases. 

57.  i.    Used  in  only  One   Case.      Many  nouns  of  the  Fourth 
Declension  are  found  only  in  the  Ablative  Singular ;  as,  jussu,  by  the 
order;  in  jussu,  without  the  order;  natu,  by  birth. 

2.  Used  in  Two  Cases. 

a.  Fors  (chance),  Nom.  Sing. ;  forte,  Abl.  Sing. 

b.  Spontis  (free-will},  Gen.  Sing. ;  sponte,  Abl.  Sing. 

3.  Used  in  Three  Cases.     Nemo,  no  one  (Nom.),  has  also  the 
Dat.   nemini   and   the   Ace.   neminem.      The    Gen.    and    Abl.   are 
supplied   by  the   corresponding   cases   of  nullus ;    viz.   nullius   and 
nullo. 


32  Inflections. 

4.  Impetus  has  the  Norn.,  Ace.,  and  Abl.  Sing.,  and  the  Norn, 
and  Ace.  Plu. ;  viz.  impetus,  impetum,  impetu,  impetus. 

5.  a.    Preci,  precem,  prece,  lacks  the  Nom.  and  Gen.  Sing. 
b.    Vicis,  vicem,  vice,  lacks  the  Nom.  and  Dat.  Sing. 

6.  Opis.  dapis,  and  frugis,  —  all  lack  the  Nom.  Sing. 

7.  Many  monosyllables  of  the  Third  Declension  lack  the  Gen.  Plu. ; 
as,  cor,  lux,  sol,  aes,  6s  (oris),  rus,  sal,  tus. 


Indeclinable     Nouns. 

58.  Here  belong  — 

fas,  n.,  right.  nefas,  n.,  impiety. 

ins  tar.  n.,  likeness.  niliil,  n.,  nothing. 

mane,  n.,  morning.  secus,  n.,  sex. 

i .  With  the  exception  of  mane  (which  may  serve  also  as  Ablative, 
in  the  morning),  the  nouns  in  this  list  are  simply  Neuters  confined  in 
use  to  the  Nominative  and  Accusative  Singular. 

Heteroclites. 

59.  These  are  nouns  whose  forms  are  partly  of   one 
declension,  and  partly  of  another.     Thus  :  — 

1.  Several  nouns  have  the  entire  Singular  of  one  declension,  while 
the  Plural  is  of  another ;  as,  — 

vas,  vasis  (vessel)  ;  Plu.,  vasa,  vasorum,  vasis,  etc. 

jugerum,  jugeri  (acre)  ;   Plu ,  jugera,  jugerum,  jugeribus,  etc. 

2.  Several  nouns,  while  belonging  in  the  main  to  one  declension, 
have  certain  special  forms  belonging  to  another.     Thus  :  — 

a)  Many  nouns  of  the  First  Declension  ending  in  -ia  take  also 
a  Nom.  and  Ace.  of  the  Fifth;   as,  materies,  materiem, 
material,  as  well  as  materia,  materiam. 

b)  Fames,  hunger,  regularly  of  the  Third  Declension,  has  the 
Abl.  fame  of  the  Fifth. 

c)  Requies,  requigtis,  rest,  regularly  of  the  Third  Declension, 
takes  an  Ace.  of  the  Fifth,  requiem,  in  addition  to  requi- 
etem. 

d)  Besides  plebs,  plebis,  common  people,  of  the  Third  Declen- 
sion, we  find  plebes,  plebel  (also  plebi,  see  §  52.  2),  of  the 
Fifth. 


Heterogeneous  Nouns.  33 

Heterogeneous  Nouns. 

60.  Heterogeneous  nouns  vary  in  Gender.     Thus  :  — 

1 .  Several  nouns  of  the  Second  Declension  have  two  forms,  —  one 
Masc.  in  -us,  and  one  Neuter  in  -um ;  as,  clipeus,  clipeum,  shield', 
carrus,  carrum,  cart. 

2.  Other  nouns  have  one  gender  in  the  Singular,  another  in  the 
Plural ;  as,  — 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

balneum,  n.,  bath;  balneae,  f.,  bath-house. 

epulum,  n.,  feast;  epulae,  f.,  feast. 

frenum,  n.,  bridle;  freni,  m.  (rarely  frena,  n.),  bridle. 

jocus,  m.,jest;  joca,  n.  (also  joci,  m.),  jests. 

locus,  m.,  place;  loca,  n.,  places;  loci,  m.,  passages 

or  topics  in  an  author. 

rastrum,  n.,  rake;  rastri,  m. ;  rastra,  n.,  rakes. 

a.    Heterogeneous  nouns  may  at  the  same  time  be  heteroclites,  as  in  case 
of  the  first  two  examples  above. 

Plurals  'with  Change  of  Meaning. 

61.  The    following   nouns    have    one    meaning   in    the 
Singular,  and  another  in  the  Plural :  — 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

aedes,  temple;  aedes,  house. 

auxilium,  help ;  auxilia,  auxiliary  troops. 

career,  prison ;  carceres,  stalls  for  racing-chariots. 

castrum,  fort ;  castra,  camp. 

copia,  abundance ;  cdpiae,  troops,  resources. 

finis,  end;  fines,  borders,  territory. 

f  ortuna,  fortune ;  f  ortunae,  possessions,  wealth. 

gratia,  favor ;  gr  atiae,  thanks . 

impedimentum,  hindrance;        impedimenta,  baggage. 

littera,  letter  (of  the  alphabet) ;     litterae,  epistle,  literature. 

mos,  habit,  custom ;  mSres,  character. 

opera,  help,  service;  operae,  laborers. 

(ops)  opis,  help;  opes,  resources. 

pars,  part ;  partes,  party,  role. 

sal,  salt ;  sales,  wit. 

D 


34  Inflections. 


B.    ADJECTIVES. 

62.    Adjectives  denote  quality.     They  are  declined  like 
nouns,  and  fall  into  two  classes,  — 

1.  Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions. 

2.  Adjectives  of  the  Third  Declension. 


ADJECTIVES   OF   THE   FIRST   AND   SECOND 
DECLENSIONS. 

63.  In  these  the  Masculine  is  declined  like  hortus,  puer, 
or  ager,  the  Feminine  like  porta,  and  the  Neuter  like  bellum. 
Thus,  Masculine  like  hortus  :  — 

Bonus,  good. 

SINGULAR. 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE.  NEUTER. 

IVojn.    bonus  bona  bonum 

Gen.     boni  bonae  boni 

Dat.     bono  bonae  bono 

Ace.      bonum  bonam  bonum 

Voc.      bone  bona  .  bonum 

Abl.      bono  bona  bono 

PLURAL. 

Norn,  boni  bonae  bona 

Gen.  bonorum  bonarum  bonorum 

Dat.  bonis  bonis  bonis 

Ace.  bonos  bonas  bona 

Voc.  boni  bonae  bona 

Abl.  bonis  bonis  bonis 

a.  The  Genitive  Singular  Masculine  and  Neuter  of  Adjectives 
in  -ius  ends  in  -ii  (not  in  -i  as  in  case  of  Nouns ;  see  §  25. 
i  ;  2).  So  also  the  Vocative  Singular  of  such  Adjectives 
ends  in  -ie,  not  in  -i.  Thus  eximius  forms  Genitive 
exi.mii ;  Vocative  eximie. 


Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions.        35 

64.    Masculine  like  puer  :  — 

Tener,  tender. 


SINGULAR. 

MASCULINE. 

FEMININE. 

NEUTER. 

Nom. 

tener 

tenera 

tenerum 

Gen. 

teneri 

tenerae 

teneri 

Dat. 

tenero 

tenerae 

tenero 

Ace. 

tenerum 

teneram 

tenerum 

Voc. 

tener 

tenera 

tenerum 

Abl. 

tenero 

tenera 

tenero 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

teneri 

tenerae 

tenera 

Gen. 

tenerorum 

tenerarum 

tenerorum 

Dat. 

teneris 

teneris 

teneris 

Ace. 

teneros 

teneras 

tenera 

Voc. 

teneri 

tenerae 

tenera 

Abl. 

teneris 

teneris 

teneris 

65.    Masculine  like  ager  :  — 


MASCULINE. 

Nom.  sacer 

Gen.  sacri 

Dat.  sacro 

Ace.  sacrum 

Voc.  sacer 

Abl.  sacro 


Nom.  sacri 

Gen.  sacrorum 

Dat.  sacris 

Ace.  sacros 

Voc.  sacri 

Abl.  sacris 


Sacer,  sacred. 

SINGULAR. 
FEMININE. 
sacra 
sacrae 
sacrae 
sacram 
sacra 
sacra 

PLURAL. 
sacrae 
sacrarum 
sacris 
sacras 
sacrae 
sacris 


NEUTER. 

sacrum 

sacri 

sacro 

sacrum 

sacrum 

sacro 


sacra 
sacrorum 

sacris 
sacra 
sacra 
sacris 


I.     Most  adjectives  in  -er  are  declined  like  sacer.     The  following 
are   declined   like   tener :    asper,   rough ;    lacer,  torn ;    liber,  free ; 


36  Inflections. 

miser,  wretched;  prosper,  prosperous ;  compounds  in  -fer  and  -ger ; 
sometimes  dexter,  right. 

2.     Satur,  full,  is  declined  :  satur,  satura,  saturum. 

Nine  Irregular  Adjectives. 
66.    Here  belong - 

alius,  another;  alter,  the  other  i 

ullus,  any;  nullus,  none; 

uter,  which  ?  (of  two) ;  neuter,  neither ; 

solus,  alone ;  totus,  whole ; 

unus,  one,  alone. 

They  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


MASCULINE.  FEMININE. 
Nom.   alius        alia 
Gen.     alterius   alterius 
Dat.     alii  alii 

Ace.      alium       aliam 

AbL      alio          alia 


SINGULAR. 

NEUTER. 

aliud 
alterius1 
alii 
aliud 

alio 


MASCULINE.  FEMININE.  NEUTER. 

alter  altera  alterum 

alterius  alterius  alterius 

alter!  alter! 2  alter! 

alterum  alteram  alterum 


altero        altera        altero 


Nom.  uter          utra          utrum 

Gen.  utrius      utrius      utrms 

Dat.  utri           utr!          utr! 

Ace.  utrum      utram      utrum 

Voc.  

Abl.  utr5         utra          utro 

1 .  All  these  words  lack  the  Vocative. 

2.  The  Plural  is  regular. 


totus 
totius 
tot! 
totum 

toto 


tota 
totms 
tot! 
totam 

tota 


totum 
tot!us 
tot! 
totum 

toto 


ADJECTIVES   OF   THE   THIRD   DECLENSION. 

67.    These  fall  into  three  classes,  - 

1.  Adjectives  of  three  terminations  in  the  Nominative 
Singular,  —  one  for  each  gender. 

2.  Adjectives  of  two  terminations. 

3.  Adjectives  of  one  termination. 

1  This  is  almost  always  used  instead  of  alms  in  the  Genitive. 

2  A  Dative  Singular  Feminine  alterae  also  occurs. 


Adjectives  of  the  Third  Declension.  37 

With  the  exception  of  Comparatives,  and  a  few  other  words 
mentioned  below  in  §  70.  i,  all  Adjectives  of  the  Third 
Declension  follow  the  inflection  of  i-stems ;  i.e.  they  have 
the  Ablative  Singular  in  -i,  the  Genitive  Plural  in  -ium,  the 
Accusative  Plural  in  -is  (as  well  as  -es)  in  the  Masculine 
and  Feminine,  and  the  Nominative  and  Accusative  Plural 
in  -ia  in  Neuters. 


Adjectives  of  Three  Terminations. 
68.   These  are  declined  as  follows :  — 
Acer,  sharp. 

SINGULAR. 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE.  NEUTER. 

Nom.   acer  acris  acre 

Gen.     acris  acris  acris 

Dat.     acri  acri  acri 

Ace.      acrem  acrem  acre 

Voc.      acer  acris  acre 

Abl.      acri  acri  acri 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  acres  acres  acria 

Gen.  acrium  acrium  acrium 

Dat.  acribus  acribus  acribus 

Ace.  acres,  -is  acres,  -is  acria 

Voc.  acres  acres  acria 

Abl.  acribus  acribus  acribus 

1.  Like  acer  are  declined  alacer,  lively ;  campester,  level ';  cele- 
ber,  famous ;    equester,  equestrian;    paluster,  marshy;   pedester, 
pedestrian;   puter,  rotten;   saluber,  wholesome;  Silvester,  woody; 
terrester,  terrestrial;  volucer,  winged;   also  names  of  months   in 
-ber,  as  September. 

2.  Celer,  celeris,  celere,  swift,  is  declined  like  acer,  but  lacks 
the  Genitive  Plural. 

3.  In  the  Nominative  Singular  of  Adjectives  of  this  class  the  Femi- 
nine form  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Masculine.     This  is  regularly  true 
of  salubris,  silvestris,  and  terrestris.     In  case  of  the  other  words 
in  the  list,  the  use  of  the  Feminine  for  the  Masculine  is  confined  chiefly 
to  early  and  late  Latin,  and  to  poetry. 


3  Inflections. 

Adjectives  of  Two  Terminations. 
69.    These  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


Fortis,  strong. 


Fortior,  stronger. 


SINGULAR. 


M.   AND   F. 

NEUT. 

M.   AND  F. 

NEUT. 

Nom. 

fortis 

forte 

fortior 

fortius 

Gen. 

fortis 

fortis 

fortioris 

fortioris 

Dat. 

forti 

forti 

fortiori 

fortiori 

Ace. 

fortem 

forte 

fortiorem 

fortius 

Voc. 

fortis 

forte 

fortior 

fortius 

Abl. 

forti 

forti 

fortiore,  -I 

fortiore,  -I 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

fortes 

fortia 

fortiores 

fortiora 

Gen. 

fortium 

fortium 

fortiorum 

fortiorum 

Dat. 

fortibus 

fortibus 

fortioribus 

fortioribus 

Ace. 

fortes,  -is 

fortia 

fortiores,  -is 

fortiora 

Voc. 

fortes 

fortia 

fortiores 

fortiora 

Abl.      fortibus       fortibus 


fortioribus         fortioribus 


i.    Fortior  is  the  Comparative  of  fortis.     All  Comparatives  are 
regularly  declined  in  the  same  way.     The  Ace.  Plu.  in  -is  is  rare. 


70. 


Adjectives  of  One  Termination. 
Felix,  happy.  Frudens,  prudent. 


SINGULAR. 

M.  AND   F. 

NEUT. 

M.   AND   F. 

NEUT. 

Nom. 

felix 

felix 

prudens 

prudens 

Gen. 

fellcis 

fellcis 

prudentis 

prudentis 

Dat. 

felici 

felici 

prudent! 

prudent! 

Ace. 

felicem 

felix 

prudentem 

prudens 

Voc. 

felix 

felix 

prudens 

prudens 

Abl. 

felici 

felici 

prudent! 

prudent! 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  fellces  felicia  prudentes  prudentia 

Gen.  felicium  felicium  prudentium  prudentium 

Dat.  fellcibus  fellcibus  prudentibus  prudentibus 

Ace.  fel!ce*s,  -is  felicia  prudentes, -is  prudentia 

Voc.  fellcgs  felicia  prudentes  prudentia 

Abl.  felicibus  fellcibus  prudentibus  prudentibus 


Adjectives  of  the  Third  Declension. 


39 


Vetus, 

old. 

SINGULAR. 

Mr.  AND   F. 

NEUT. 

Nom. 

vetus 

vetus* 

Gen. 

veteris 

veteris 

Dat. 

veteri 

veteri 

Ace. 

veterem 

vetus 

Voc. 

vetus 

vetus 

Abl. 

vetere 

vetere 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

veteres 

vetera 

Gen. 

veterum 

veterum 

Dat. 

veteribus 

veteribus 

Ace. 

veteres 

vetera 

Voc. 

veteres 

vetera 

Abl. 

veteribus 

veteribus 

Plus,  more. 


M.  AND   F. 


plures 
plurium 
pluribus 
plures,  -is 


NEUT. 

pins 

pluris 

plus 

plure 

plura 
plarium 
pluribus 
plura 


pluribus         pluribus 

1 .  It  will  be  observed  that  vetus  is  declined  as  a  pure  Consonant- 
Stem  ;  i.e.  Ablative  Singular  in  -e,  Genitive  Plural  in  -um,  Nominative 
Plural  Neuter  in  -a,  and  Accusative  Plural  Masculine  and  Feminine  in 
-es  only.     In  the  same  way  are  declined  compos,  controlling;  dives, 
rich;  particeps,  sharing;   pauper,  poor;  prmceps,  Chief;  sospes, 
safe;  superstes,  surviving.     Yet  dives  always  has  Neut.  Plu.  ditia. 

2.  Inops,  needy ,  and   memor,  mindful,  have   Ablative   Singular 
inopi,  memoiT,  but  Genitive  Plural  inopum,  memorum. 

3.  Participles  in  -ans  and  -ens  follow  the  declension  of  I-stems. 
But  they  do  not  have  -I  in  the  Ablative,  except  when  employed  as  adjec- 
tives ;  when  used  as  participles  or  as  substantives,  they  have  -e  ;  as, — 

a  sapient!  viro,  by  a  wise  man ;     but 

a  sapiente,  by  a  philosopher ; 

Tarquinio  regnante,  under  the  reign  of  Tarquin. 

4.  Plus,  in  the  Singular,  is  always  a  noun. 

5 .  In  the  Ablative  Singular,  adjectives,  when  used  as  substantives,  — 

a)   usually  retain  the  adjective  declension  ;  as,  — 
aequalis,  contemporary,  Abl.  aequali. 
consularis,  ex-consul,      Abl.  consular!. 
So  names  of  Months ;   as,  April!,  April;  Decembri,  De- 
cember. 

b}    But  adjectives  used  as  proper  names  have  -e  in  the  Ablative 
Singular ;  as,  Celere,  Celer ;  Juvenale,  Juvenal. 


4O  Inflections. 

c)  Patrials  in  -as,  -atis  and  -Is,  -itis,  when  used  as  substantives, 
regularly  have  -I ;  as,  in  Arpmati,  on  the  estate  at  Arpinum ; 
yet  -e,  when  used  of  persons  ;  as,  ab  Arpinate,  by  an  Arpi- 
natian. 

6.    A  very  few  indeclinable  adjectives  occur,  the  chief  of  which  are 
frugi,  frugal,  nequam,  'worthless. 


COMPARISON   OF   ADJECTIVES. 

71.    i.    There  are  three  degrees  of  Comparison,  —  the 
Positive,  the  Comparative,  and  the  Superlative. 

2.  The  Comparative  is  regularly  formed  by  adding  -ior 
(Neut.  -ius),  and  the  Superlative  by  adding  -issimus  (-a,  -um), 
to  the  Stem  of  the  Positive  deprived  of  its  final  vowel ;  as, — 

altus,  high,  altior,  higher,      altissimus,  { highest* 

( very  high. 
fortis,  brave,  fortior,  fortissimus.  __ 

felix,  fortunate,  fellcior,  felicissimus. 

dives,  rich)  divitior,  divitissimus. 

So  also  Participles,  when  used  as  Adjectives  ;  as,  — 

doctus,  learned,  doctior,  •    doctissimus. 

egens,  needy,  egentior,  egentissimus . 

3.  Adjectives  in  -er  form  the  Superlative  by  appending  -rimus  to 
the  Nominative  of  the  Positive.    The  Comparative  is  regular.    Thus :  — 

asper,  rough,  asperior,  asperrimus. 

pulcher,  beautiful,        pulchrior,  pulcherrimus. 

acer,  sharp,  acrior,  acerrimus. 

celer,  swift,  celerior,  celerrimus. 

pauper,  poor,  pauperior,  pauperrimus. 

a.    Notice  maturus,  maturior,  maturissimus  or  maturrimus. 

4.  Five  Adjectives  in  -ills  form  the  Superlative  by  adding  -limus 
to  the  Stem  of  the  Positive  deprived  of  its  final  vowel.     The  Compara- 
tive is  regular.     Thus  :  — 

facilis,  easy,  facilior,  facillimus. 

difncilis,  difficult,  difficilior,  difficillimus. 

similis,  like,  similior,  simillimus. 

dissimilis,  unlike,  dissimilior,  dissimillimus. 

humilis,  low,  humilior,  humillimus. 


Comparison  of  Adjectives.  41 

5.  Adjectives  in  -dicus,  -ficus,  and  -volus,  form  the  Comparative 
and  Superlative  as  though  from  forms  in  -dicens,  -ficens,  -volens. 
Thus :  - 

maledicus,  slanderous,        maledicentior,  maledicentissimus. 

magnificus,  magnificent,      magnificentior,          magnificentissimus. 
benevolus,  kindly,  benevolentior,  benevolentissimus. 

a.    Positives  in  -dicens  and  -volens  occur  in  early  Latin ;  as, 
maledicens,  benevolens. 

Irregular  Comparison. 

72.  Several    Adjectives    vary    the    Stem    in    Compari- 
son ;  viz.  — 

bonus,  good,  melior,  optimus . 

malus,  bad,  pejor,  pessimus. 

parvus,  small,  minor,  minimus, 

magnus,  large,  major,  maximus. 

multus,  much,  plus,  plurimus. 

frugl,  thrifty,  frugalior,  frugalissimus. 

nequam,  worthless,  nequior,  nequissimus. 

1 .  Observe  that  the  i  of  -ior  becomes  j  —  between  vowels  —  in  pejor 
and  major. 

Defective  Comparison. 

73.  i.    Positive  lacking  entirely, — 

(Cf.  prae,  in  front  of.)  prior,  former,  primus,  first. 

(Cf.  citra,  this  side  of.)  citerior,  on  this  side,  citimus,  near. 

(Cf.  ultra,  beyond.)         ,  ulterior,  farther,  ultimus,  farthest. 

(Cf.  intra,  within.)  interior,  inner,  intimus,  inmost. 

(Cf.  prope,  near.)  propior,  nearer,  proximus,  nearest. 

(Cf.  de,  down.)  deterior,  inferior,  deterrimus,  worst. 

(Cf.  archaic  potis,  possible.)  potior,  preferable,  potissimus,  chief est. 

2.  Positive  occurring  only  in  special  cases, — 

postero  die    anno,  etc.,  j  f       trSm       { **«'» 

the  foiling  day,  etc.,     posterior,  later>  }"*• 

{ late-born, 
poster!,  descendants,        J  |  postumus,  \posthumous. 

exterl,  foreigners, 

nationes    exterae,   for-  \  exterior,  outer,  us>  1  outermost 

eign  nations,  I  extimus, 


42 


Inflections. 


Infer!,  gods  of  the  lower  world,  j 

Mare  Inferum,  Mediterranean  \  inferior,  lower, 

Sta,  } 

super!,  gods  above,  1  . 

Mare  Superum,  Adriatic  Sea,  J  suPel  or>  *" 

3.  Comparative  lacking. 

vetus,  old,  -  * 

fidus,  faithful, 
novus,  new, 
sacer,  sacred, 
falsus,  false, 

Also  in  some  other  words  less  frequently  used. 

4.  Superlative  lacking. 

alacer,  lively,  alacrior, 

ingens,  great,        .  ingentior, 

salutaris,  wholesome,  salutarior, 

juvenis,  young,  junior, 

senex,  old,  senior. 


_ 

u  imus>  I  lowest. 
lmus'      I 
f  supremus,  last. 
summus,  highest. 


veterrimus. 
f  idissimus. 
novissimus,3  last. 
sacerrimus. 
falsissimus. 


a.    The  Superlative  is  lacking  also  in  many  adjectives  in  -alis, 
-Ilis,  -ilis,  -bilis,  and  in  a  few  others. 


Comparison  by  Magis  and  Ma,xime. 

74.  Many  adjectives  do  not  admit  terminational  compari- 
son, but  form  the  Comparative  and  Superlative  degrees  by 
prefixing  magis  (more)  and  maxime  (most).  Here  belong  — 

1.  Many  adjectives  ending  in  -alis,  -aris,  -idus,  -ilis,  -icus,  -imus, 
-inus,  -orus. 

2.  Adjectives  in  -us  preceded  by  a  vowel;  as,  idoneus,  adapted-, 
arduus,  steep]  necessarius,  necessary. 

a.   Adjectives  in  -quus,  of  course,  do  not  come  under  this  rule. 
The  first  u  in  such  cases  is  not  a  vowel,  but  a  consonant. 

1  Supplied  by  vetustior,  from  vetustus. 

2  Supplied  by  recentior. 

8  For  newest,  recentissimus  is  used. 
4  Supplied  by  minimus  natu. 
6  Supplied  by  maximus  natu. 


Comparison  of  Adjectives  and  Adverbs.  43 

Adjectives  not  admitting  Comparison. 

75.  Here  belong  — 

1 .  Many  adjectives  which,  from  the  nature  of  their  signification,  do 
not  admit  of  comparison  ;  as,  hodiernus,  of  to-day ;  annuus,  annual; 
mortalis,  mortal. 

2.  Some  special  words  ;  as,  mirus,  gnarus,  ferus  ;  and  a  few  others. 

FORMATION  AND  COMPARISON  OF  ADVERBS. 

76.  Adverbs  are  for  the  most  part  derived  from  adjec- 
tives, and  depend  upon  them  for  their  comparison. 

1.  Adverbs  derived  from  adjectives  of  the   First  and 
Second  Declensions  form  the  Positive  by  changing  -I  of 
the  Genitive  Singular  to  -e ;  those  derived  from  adjectives 
of  the  Third  Declension,  by  changing  -is  of  the  Genitive 
Singular  to  -iter  ;  as,  — 

cams,  care,  dearly ; 

pulcher,  pulchre,  beautifully ; 

acer,  acriter,  fiercely ; 

levis,  leviter,  lightly. 

a.    But  Adjectives  in  -ns,  and  a  few  others,  add  -ter  (instead 
of  -iter),  to  form  the  Adverb  ;  as,  — 

sapiens,  sapienter,  wisely ; 
audax,  audacter,  boldly ; 
sellers,  sollerter,  skillfully. 

2.  The  Comparative  of  all  Adverbs  regularly  consists  of  the  Accu- 
sative Singular  Neuter  of  the  Comparative  of  the  Adjective ;  while  the 
Superlative  of  the  Adverb  is  formed  by  changing  the  -I  of  the  Genitive 
Singular  of  the  Superlative  of  the  Adjective  to  -e.     Thus  — 

(carus)  care,  dearly ',  carius,  carissime. 

(pulcher)  pulchre,  beautifully,  pulchrius,  pulcherrime. 

(acer)  acriter,  fiercely,  acrius,  acerrime. 

(levis)  leviter,  lightly,  levius,  levissime. 

(sapiens)  sapienter,  'wisely,  sapientius,  sapientissime. 

(audax)  audacter,  boldly,  audacius,  audacissimS. 


44  Inflections. 

Adverbs  Peculiar  in  Comparison  and  Formation. 

77.   i. 

bene,  well,  melius,  optime. 

male,  ///,  pejus,  pessime. 

magnopere,  greatly,  magis,  maxime. 

multum,  much,  plus,  plurimum. 

non  multum,  j,^  minus?  minime. 
parum, 

diu,  long,  diutius,  diutissime. 

nequiter,  worthlessly,  nequius,  nequissime. 

saepe,  often,  saepius,  saepissime. 

.    ,  , .  f  maturrime, 

mature,  betimes,  maturms, 

[  maturissime. 

prope,  near,  propius,  proxime. 

nuper,  recently,  nuperrime. 

potius,  rather.          potissimum,  especially. 

prius,  [Piously,  1      Im        firsL 

I  before,         } 
secus,  otherwise,  secius,  worse. 

2.  A  number  of  adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions 
form  an  Adverb  in  -o,  instead  of  -e  ;  as,  — 

crebro,  frequently  ;  falso,  falsely ; 

continue,  continuously;  subito,  suddenly; 

raro,  rarely,  and  a  few  others. 

a.    cito,  quickly,  has  -6. 

3.  A  few  adjectives  employ  the  Accusative  Singular  Neuter  as  the 
Positive  of  the  Adverb  ;  as,  — 

multum,  much;  minimum,  least; 

paulum,  little;  facile,  easily. 

4.  A  few  adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions  form  the 
Positive  in  -iter  ;  as,  — 

firmus,  firmiter,y£r#//x;  humanus,  humaniter,  humanly; 

largus,   largiter,  copiously ;  alius,          aliter,  otherwise. 

a.   violentus  has  violenter. 

5.  Various  other  adverbial  suffixes  occur,  the  most  important  of 
which    are   -tus    and   -tim ;     as,    antiquitus,   anciently ;    paulatim, 
gradually. 


Numerals. 


45 


NUMERALS. 

78.    Numerals  may  be  divided  into  — 
I.     Numeral  Adjectives,  comprising  — 


a.  Cardinals]  as,  unus,  one]  duo,  two]  etc. 

b.  Ordinals]  as,  primus,  first  ;  secundus,  second]  etc. 

c.  Distributives]  as,  singuli,  one  by  one]  bini,/-^  by  two]  etc. 


II. 

Numeral  Adverbs  ;  as,  semel,  once  ;  bis,  twice  ; 

etc. 

79 

TABLE  OF 

NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS. 

CARDINALS. 

ORDINALS. 

DISTRIBUTIVES. 

ADVERBS. 

I. 

unus,  una,  unum 

primus.yfr-j/ 

singuli,  one  by  one 

semel 

2. 

duo,  duae,  duo 

secundus,  second 

binl,  two  by  two 

bis 

3- 

tres,  tria 

tertius,  third 

term  (trim) 

ter 

4- 

quattuor 

quartus,  fourth 

quaterm 

quater 

5- 

qulnque 

qumtus.yf/?^ 

quml 

qulnquies 

6. 

sex 

sextus 

sen! 

sexies 

7- 

septem 

septimus 

septem 

septies 

8. 

octo 

octavus 

octoni 

octies 

9- 

novem 

nonus 

novem 

novies 

10. 

decem 

decimus 

deni 

decies 

ii. 

undecim 

undecimus 

undenl 

undecies 

12. 

duodecim 

duodecimus 

duodeni 

duodecies 

13- 

tredecim 

tertius  decimus 

ternl  deni 

terdecies 

14. 

quattuordecim 

quartus  decimus 

quaterni  deni 

quaterdecies 

IS- 

quindecim 

qulntus  decimus 

qulni  deni 

qulnquies  decies 

16.' 

!S6Q6Cim      / 
( 

sextus  decimus 

sen!  deni 

sexies  decies 

i 

sexdecim  > 

17- 

septendecim 

septimus  decimus 

septem  deni 

septies  decies 

18. 

duodevlginti 

duodevicesimus 

duodevlcenl 

octies  decies 

19. 

undevlgintl 

undevicesimus 

undevlcenl 

novies  decies 

20. 

viginti 

vicesimus 

vicenl 

vlcies 

i 
21. 

(  viginti  unus 

vicesimus  primus 

viceni  singuli 

/  vlcies  semel 

1 

!  unus  et  viginti 

unus  et  vicesimus 

singuli  et  viceni 

22. 

(  viginti  duo 

vicesimus  secundus 

viceni  binl 

J  vlcies  bis 

i  duo  et  viginti 

alter  et  vicesimus 

binl  et  viceni 

30. 

triginta 

tricesimus 

tricenl 

tricies 

40. 

quadraginta 

quadragesimus 

quadragenl 

quadragies 

SO- 

quinquaginta 

qulnquagesimus 

qulnquagenl 

qulnquagies 

60. 

sexaginta 

sexagesimus 

sexagenl 

sexagies 

70. 

septuaginta 

septuagesimus 

septuagenl 

septuagies 

80. 

octoginta 

octogesimus 

octogenl 

octogies 

90. 

nonaginta 

nonagesimus 

nonagenl 

nonagies 

100. 

centum 

centesimus 

centenl 

centies 

46 


Inflections. 


CARDINALS. 

ORDINALS. 

DISTRIBUTIVES. 

ADVERBS. 

101.  j 

centum  unus 

centesimus  primus 

centeni  singuli 

[  centies  semel 

\ 

centum  et  unus 

centesimus  et  primus 

centeni  et  singuli 

200. 

ducenti,  -ae,  -a 

ducentesimus 

duceni 

ducenties 

300. 

trecenti 

trecentesimus 

trecenl 

trecenties 

400. 

quadringentl 

quadringentesimus 

quadringenl 

quadringenties 

500. 

qumgenti 

qulngentesimus 

qumgeni 

quingenties 

600. 

sescenti 

sescentesimus 

sesceni 

sescenties 

700. 

septingenti 

septingentesimus 

septingeni 

septingenties 

800. 

octingentl 

octingentesimus 

octingeni 

octingenties 

900. 

nongentl 

nongentesimus 

nongeni 

nongenties 

1,000. 

mille 

miliesimus 

singula  millia 

millies 

2,000. 

duo  millia 

bis  miliesimus 

bma  millia 

bis  millies 

100,000. 

centum  millia 

centies  miliesimus 

centena  millia 

centies  millies 

1,000,000. 

decies  centena 

decies  centies  milie- 

decies centena 

decies  centies 

millia 

simus 

millia 

millies 

NOTE. 

ensimus 

and  -iens  are  often  written  in 

the   numerals 

instead  of  -esimus  and  -ies. 


Declension  of  the  Cardinals. 

80.    i .    The  declension  of  unus  has  already  been  given  under  §  66. 

2.  Duo  is  declined  as  follows  :  — 

Nom.   duo  duae  duo 

Gen.     duorum  duarum  duorum 

Dat.     duobus  duabus  duobus 

Ace.      duos,  duo  duas  duo 

Abl.      duobus  duabus  duobus 

a.    So  ambo,  both^  except  that  its  final  o  is  long. 

3.  Tres  is  declined, — 

Norn,  tres  tria 

Gen.  trium  trium 

Dat.  tribus  tribus 

Ace.  tres  (tris)  tria 

Abl.  tribus  tribus 

4.  The  hundreds  (except  centum)  are  declined  like  the  Plural  of 
bonus. 

5.  Mille  is  regularly  an  adjective  in  the  Singular,  and  indeclinable. 
In  the  Plural  it  is  a  substantive  (followed  by  the  Genitive  of  the  objects 
enumerated;  §  201.  i),  and  is  declined, — 

Nom.   millia  Ace.      millia 

Gen.     millium  Voc.      millia 

Dat.     mlllibus  Abl.      mlllibus 


Numerals.  47 

Thus  mille  homines,  a  thousand  men;   but  duo  millia  hominum, 
two  thousand  men,  literally  two  thousands  of  men. 

a.    Occasionally  the  Singular  admits  the  Genitive  construction; 
as,  mille  hominum. 

6.  Other  Cardinals  are  indeclinable.  Ordinals  and  Distributives 
are  declined  like  Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions. 

Peculiarities  in  the  Use  of  Numerals. 

81.  i.  The  compounds  from  21  to  99  may  be  expressed  either 
with  the  larger  or  the  smaller  numeral  first.  In  the  latter  case,  et 
is  used.  Thus  :  — 

triginta  sex  or  sex  et  triginta,  thirty -six. 

2.  The  numerals  under  90,  ending  in  8  and  9,  are  often  expressed 
by  subtraction  ;  as,  — 

duodeviginti,  eighteen  (but  also  octodecim) ; 

undequadraginta,  thirty-nine  (but  also  triginta  novem  or  novem 
et  triginta) . 

3.  Compounds  over  100  regularly  have  the  largest  number  first; 
the  others  follow  without  et ;  as,  — 

centum  viginti  septem,  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven. 

anno  millesimo  octingentesimo  octogesimo  secundo,  in  the  year 

1882. 

Yet  et  may  be  inserted  where  the  smaller  number  is  either  a  digit  or 
one  of  the  tens  ;  as,  — 

centum  et  septem,  one  hundred  and  seven ; 
•  centum  et  quadraginta,  one  hundred  and  forty. 

4.  The  Distributives  are  used  — 

a)    To  denote  so  many  each,  so  many  apiece ;  as,  — 

bina  talenta  iis  dedit,  he  gave  them  two  talents  each. 
U)    When  those  nouns  that  are  ordinarily  Plural  in  form,  but 

Singular  in  meaning,  are  employed  in  a  Plural  sense ;  as,  — 

bmae  litterae,  two  epistles. 

But  in  such  cases,  uni  (not  singuli)  is  regularly  employed 

for  one,  and  trim  (not  term)  for  three ;  as,  — 

uiiae  litterae,  one  epistle. 

trmae  litterae,  three  epistles, 
c)    In  multiplication  ;  as, — 

bis  bina  sunt  quattuor,  twice  two  are  four. 


48 


Inflections. 


C.    PRONOUNS. 

82.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  that  indicates  something  with- 
out naming  it. 

83.  There  are  the  following  classes  of  pronouns :  — 

I.  Personal.  V.  Intensive. 

II.  Reflexive.  VI.  Relative. 

III.  Possessive.  VII.  Interrogative. 

IV.  Demonstrative.  VIII.  Indefinite. 


I.    PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

84.    These  correspond  to  the  English  /,  yon,  he,  she,  it, 
etc.,  and  are  declined  as  follows :  — 

Third  Person. 
is,  he;  ea,  she;  id,  it 

(For  declension  see  §  87.) 


First  Person. 

Second  Person. 

SINGULAR. 

Noni. 

ego,/ 

tu,  thou 

Gen. 

mei 

tul 

Dat. 

mini1 

tibi1 

Ace. 

me 

te 

l/nr 

v  t/6  . 

AbL 

me 

te 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

nos,  we 

vos,  you 

Gen.  \ 

nostrum 
nostri 

f  vestrum 
i  vestri 

Dat. 

nobls 

vobis 

Ace. 

nos 

vos  /^S 

Voc. 



vos     « 

Abl. 

nobls 

vobis 

1 .  A  Dative  Singular  mi  occurs  in  poetry. 

2.  Emphatic  forms  in  -met  (accented  on  the  penult  according  to 
§  6.  3)  occur ;  as,  eg6met,  /  myself;  tiblmet,  to  you  yourself;  tu  has 
tute  and  tutemet. 

1  The  final  i  is  sometimes  long  in  poetry. 


Pronouns.  49 

3.  In  early  Latin,  med  and  ted  occur  as  Accusative  and  Ablative 
forms. 

II.    REFLEXIVE   PRONOUNS. 

85.  These  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence  or  clause 
in  which  they  stand ;  like  myself,  yourself,  in  ' '/  see  myself J 
etc.  They  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 

First  Person.  Second  Person.  Third  Person. 

Supplied  by  oblique  Supplied  by  oblique 

cases  of  ego.  cases  of  tu. 

Gen.  me!,  of  myself  \m,  of  thyself  sui 

Dat.  mihi,  to  myself  tibi,  to  thyself  sibi 1 

Ace.  me,  myself  te,  thyself  se  or  sese 

Voc.  

Abl.  me,  with  myself,  etc.  te,  with  thyself,  etc.  se  or  sese 

1 .  The  Reflexive  of  the  Third  Person  serves  for  all  genders  and  for 
both  numbers.     Thus  sui  may  mean,  of  himself,  herself,  itself,  or  of 
themselves;  and  so  with  the  other  forms. 

2.  All  of  the  Reflexive  Pronouns  have  at  times  a  reciprocal  force ; 

inter  se  pugnant,  they  fight  with  each  other. 

3.  In  early  Latin,  sed  occurs  as  Accusative  and  Ablative. 


III.    POSSESSIVE   PRONOUNS. 

86.    These  are  strictly  adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second 
Declensions,  and  are  inflected  as  such.     They  are  — 

First  Per s oft.  Second  Person. 

meus,  -a,  -um,  my;  tuus,  -a,  -um,,Mx; 

noster,  nostra,  nostrum,  our;  vester,  vestra,  vestrum,  your; 

Third  Person. 
suus,  -a,  -um,  his,  her,  its,  their. 

i .    Suus  is  exclusively  Reflexive  ;  as,  — 

pater  suds  liberos  amat,  the  father  loves  his  children. 

Otherwise,  his,  her,  its  are  regularly  expressed  by  the  Genitive  Singu- 
lar of  is,  viz.  ejus ;  and  their,  by  the  Genitive  Plural,  eorum,  earum. 

1  The  final  i  is  sometimes  long  in  poetry. 


50  Inflections. 

2.  The  Vocative  Singular  Masculine  of  meus  is  mi. 

3.  The  enclitic  -pte  may  be  joined  to  the  Ablative  Singular  of  the 
Possessive  Pronouns  for  the  purpose  of  emphasis.     This  is  particularly 
common  in  case  of  suo,  sua ;  as,  suopte,  suapte. 


IV.    DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

87.    These  point  out  an  object  as  here  or  there,  or  as 
previously  mentioned.     They  are  — 

hie,  this  (where  I  am) ; 

iste,  that  (where  you  are) ; 

ille,  that  (something  distinct  from  the  speaker) ; 

is,  that  (weaker  than  ille)  ;  • 

idem,  the  same. 

Hie,  iste,  and  ille  are  accordingly  the  Demonstratives  of  the  First, 
Second,  and  Third  Persons  respectively. 


Hie,  this. 


SINGULAR. 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE.  NEUTER. 

Nom.  hie1  haec  hoc 

Gen.  hujus2  hujus  hujus 

Dat.  huic  huic  huic 

Ace.  hunc  hanc  hoc 

Abl.  hoc  hac  hoc 


PLURAL. 

MASCULINE.     FEMININE.      NEUTER. 


hi 

hae 

haec 

horum 

harum 

horum 

his 

his 

his 

hos 

has 

haec 

his 

his 

his 

Nom 
Gen. 
Dat. 

Ace. 
Abl. 

Ille, 

MASCULINE, 

.   iste 
istius 
isti 
istum 

Iste,  that,  that  of  yours. 

SINGULAR. 

,  FEMININE.  NEUTER.                 MASCULINE. 

ista        istud  3                isti 
istius      istius                  istorum 
isti         isti                     istis 
istam     istud                  istos 

PLURAL. 

FEMININE. 

istae 
istarum 
istis 
istas 
istis  . 

NEUTER. 

ista3 
istorum 
istis 
ista3 
istis 

isto          ista        isto 
that,  that  one,  he,  is  declined 

istis 
like  iste.4 

1  The  vowel  is  sometimes  short  in  poetry,  —  hie. 

.2  Forms  of  hie  ending  in  -s  sometimes  append  -ce  for  emphasis ;  as,  hujusce, 
this  .  . .  here;  hSsce,  hisce.   When  -ne  is  added,  -ce  becomes  -ci ;  as,  hoscine. 

3  For  istud,  istuc  sometimes  occurs;  for  ista,  istaec. 

4  For  illud,  illuc  sometimes  occurs. 


The  Intensive  Pronoun.  —  The  Relative  Pronoun.      5 1 


Is,  he,  this,  that. 

SINGULAR. 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE.    NEUTER. 


Nom.   is 

ea 

id 

Gen.     ejus 

ejus 

ejus 

Dot.     el 

el 

el 

Ace.      eum 

earn 

id 

Abl.      eo 

ea 

eo 

PLURAL. 

MASCULINE. 

FEMININE. 

NEUTER. 

el,  ii,  (I) 

eae 

ea 

eorum 

earum 

eorum 

els,  iis 

els,  iis 

els,  iis 

eos 

eas 

ea 

els,  iis 

els,  iis 

els,  iis 

Idem,  the  same. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE.    NEUTER.  MASCULINE.     FEMININE. 

eaedem 


Nom.  idem       eadem     idem 

Gen.  ejusdem  ejusdem  ejusdem 

Dat.  eldem      eidem      eldem 

Ace.  eundem  eandem  idem 

Abl.  eodem    eadem     eodem 


NEUTER. 

eadem 


MASCULINE. 

J  eldem 

[  iidem 

eorundem  earundem  eorundem 
eisdem       eisdem       eisdem 
eosdem      easdem      eadem 
elsdem       eisdem       eisdem 


The  Nom.  Plu.  Masc.  also  has  idem,  and  the  Dat.  Abl.  Plu.  isdem  or  ilsdem. 


V.    THE   INTENSIVE   PRONOUN. 

88.    The  Intensive  Pronoun  in  Latin  is  ipse.     It  corre- 
sponds to  the  English  myself,  etc.,  in  'I myself,  he  himself.' 


SINGULAR. 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE.  NEUTER. 

Nom.   ipse         ipsa  ipsum 

Gen.     ipsius      ipsius  ipsius 

Dat.     ipsi          ipsi  ipsi 

Ace.      ipsum      ipsam  ipsum 

Abl.      ipso         ipsa  ipso 


PLURAL. 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE.  NEUTER. 

ipsi  ipsae  ipsa 

ipsorum  ipsarum  ipsorum 

ipsis  ipsls  ipsls 

ipsos  ipsas  ipsa 

ipsls  ipsls  ipsis 


VI.    THE   RELATIVE   PRONOUN. 
89.    The  Relative  Pronoun  is  qul,  who.    It  is  declined:  — 


SINGULAR. 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE.  NEUTER.  MASCULINE. 

Nom.    quT           quae  quod  qul 

Gen.      cujus       cujus  cujus  quorum 

Dat.     cui           cui  cui      .  quibus 2 

Ace.      quern       quam  quod  quos 

Abl.      quo x        qua x  quo 1  quibus 2 


PLURAL. 

FEMININE.  NEUTER. 

quae  quae 

quarum  quorum 

quibus  2  quibus  2 

quas  quae 

quibus  2  quibus  2 


1  An  Ablative  qul  occurs  in  qulcum. 


2  Sometimes  quis. 


Inflections. 


VII.    INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

90.    The   Interrogative   Pronouns  are  quis,   who?  (sub- 
stantive) and  qui,  what?  what  kind  of?  (adjective). 
I .    Quis,  who  f 


SINGULAR. 

MASC.  AND  FEM.       NEUTER. 


PLURAL. 
Wanting. 


Nom. 

quis 

quid 

Gen. 

cujus 

cujus 

Dat. 

cui 

cui 

Ace. 

quern 

quid 

AbL 

quo 

quo 

2.    qui,  what?  what  kind  of?  is  declined  precisely  like  the  Rela- 
tive Pronoun ;  viz.  qui,  quae,  quod,  etc. 

a.  An  old  Ablative  qui  occurs,  in  the  sense  of  how? 

b.  Qui  is  sometimes  used  for  quis  in  Indirect  Questions. 

c.  Quis,  when  limiting  words  denoting  persons,  is  sometimes 
an  adjective.     But  in  such  cases  quis  homo  =  what  man? 
whereas  qui  homo  =  what  sort  of  a  man  ? 

d.  Quis  and  qui  may  be  strengthened  by  adding  -nam.    Thus :  — 
Substantive,  quisnam,  who,  pray  ?  quidnam,  what,  pray  ? 
Adjective.       qumam,  quaenam,  quodnam,  of  what  kind,  pray? 

VIII.    INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS. 
91.    These  have  the  general  force  of  some  one,  any  one. 


SUBSTANTIVES. 

ADJECTIVES. 

M.  AND  F. 

NEUT.                                MASC. 

FEM. 

NEUT. 

quis, 

.  ,   (  anyone, 
quid,  \         ... 
(  anything. 

qui, 

quae  or  qua, 

quod,  any. 

aliquis, 

aliquid,  |  someo™> 
(  something. 

aliqui 

aliqua, 

aliquod,  any. 

quisquam, 

quidquam,  {  an>'™e> 
(  anything^ 

No  corresponding  adjective. 

quispiam, 
quisque, 

qui  vis,     quae  vis, 
quilibet,  quaelibet, 

quidpiam,  j  anyof*e> 
(  anything. 

quidque,  each. 

quidvls,     {anyo"'\ 
.  ,,.,        i    anything 

quispiam, 
quisque, 

.qui  vis, 
quilibet, 

quaepiam, 
quaeque, 

quaevis, 
quaelibet, 

quodpiam,  any. 
quodque,  each. 
quodvis,     f  ar 

quidam,  quaedam, 

(  a  certain 
quiddam,  \    person, 
(    or  thing. 

quidam, 

quaedam, 

quoddam,  \acer~ 
\   tain. 

Indefinite  Pronouns. — Pronominal  Adjectives.        53 

1.  In  the  Indefinite  Pronouns,  only  the  pronominal  part  is  declined. 
Thus  :  Genitive  Singular  alicujus,  cujuslibet,  etc. 

2.  Note  that  aliqui  has  aliqua  in  the  Nominative  Singular  Femi- 
nine, also  in  the  Nominative  and  Accusative  Plural  Neuter.     QuI  has 
both  qua  and  quae  in  these  same  cases. 

3.  Quidam  forms  Accusative  Singular  quendam,  quandam  ;  Geni- 
tive Plural  quorundain,  quarundam ;  the  m  being  assimilated  to  n 
before  d. 

4.  Aliquis  may  be  used  adjectively,  and  (occasionally)  aliqui  sub- 
stantively. 

5.  In  combination  with  ne,  si,  nisi,  num,  either  quis  or  qui  may 
stand  as  a  Substantive.     Thus  :  si  quis  or  si  qui. 

6.  Ecquis,  anyone,   though   strictly   an   Indefinite,  generally   has 
interrogative  force.      It  has  both  substantive  and  adjective  forms, — 
substantive,  ecquis,  ecquid ;    adjective,  ecqui,  ecquae  and  ecqua, 
ecquod. 

7.  Quisquam  is  not  used  in  the  Plural. 

8.  There  are  two  Indefinite  Relatives,  —  quicumque  and  quisquis, 
whoever.     Quicumque  declines  only  the  first  part ;  quisquis  declines 
both,  but  has  only  quisquis,  quidquid,  quoquo  in  common  use. 


PRONOMINAL   ADJECTIVES. 

92.    The  following  adjectives,  also,  frequently  have  pro- 
nominal force :  — 

1 .  alius,  another ;  alter,  the  other ; 
uter,  which  of  two?  (interr.)  ;     neuter,  neither ; 

whichever  of  two  (rel.) ; 
firms,  one;  nullus,  no  one  (in  oblique  cases). 

2.  The  compounds, — 

uterque,  utraque,  utrumque,  each  of  two; 

utercumque,  utracumque,  utrumcumque,  whoever  of  two; 

uterlibet,  utralibet,  utrumlibet,  either  one  you  please; 

utervis,  utravis,  utrumvis,  either  one  you  please; 

alteruter,  alterutra,  alterutrum,  the  one  or  the  other. 
In   these,  uter  alone   is   declined.      The   rest   of  the  word   remains 
unchanged,   except   in   case   of   alteruter,   which   may   decline   both 
parts ;  as,  — 

Nom.   alteruter  altera  utra         alterum  utrum 

Gen.     alterius  utrius    etc. 


54  Inflections, 


CHAPTER  II.  —  Conjugation. 

93.  The  Inflection  of  Verbs  is  called  Conjugation. 

94.  Verbs    have    Voice,    Mood,    Tense,    Number,    and 
Person : 

1.  Two  Voices,  —  Active  and  Passive. 

2.  Three  Moods,  —  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  Imperative. 

3.  Six  Tenses, — 

Present,  Perfect, 

Imperfect,  Pluperfect, 

Future,  Future  Perfect. 

But  the  Subjunctive  lacks  the  Future  and  Future  Perfect ;  while  the 
Imperative  employs  only  the  Present  and  Future. 

4.  Two  Numbers,  —  Singular  and  Plural. 

5.  Three  Persons,  —  First,  Second,  and  Third. 

95.  These  make  up  the  so-called  Finite  Verb.     Besides 
this,  we  have  the  following  Noun  and  Adjective  Forms  :  — 

1.  Noun  Forms,  —  Infinitive,  Gerund,  and  Supine. 

2.  Adjective  Forms,  —  Participles  (including  the  Gerundive). 

96.  The  Personal  Endings  of  the  Verb  are,  — 

ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Sing.  i.     -6;  -m;  -I  (Perf.  Ind.);  -r. 

2.  -s;  -sti  (Perf.  Ind.);  -to  or         -ris,  -re  ;  -re, -tor  (Impv.). 

wanting  (Impv.); 

3.  -t;  -to  (Impv.);  -tur  ;  -tor  (Impv.). 

Plu.  i.     -mus ;  -mur. 

2.  -tis;   -stis  (Perf.  Ind.);   -te,         -mini. 

-tote  (Impv.) ; 

3.  -nt;  -erunt  (Perf.  Ind.);  -nto         -ntur  ;  -ntor  (Impv.). 

(Impv.); 

VERB-STEMS. 

97.  Conjugation  consists  in  appending  certain  endings 
to  the  Stem.     We  distinguish  three  different  stems  in  a 
fully  inflected  verb,  — 


Verb- Stems. —  The  Four  Conjugations.  55 

I.    Present  Stem,  from  which  are  formed  — 

1.  Present,  Imperfect,  and  Future  Indicative,  l 

2.  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive,  |  Active  and  Pas- 

3.  The  Imperative,  sive. 

4.  The  Present  Infinitive, 

5.  The  Present  Active  Participle,  the  Gerund,  and  Gerundive. 

II.    Perfect  Stem,  from  which  are  formed  — 

1.  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Indicative,  1 

2.  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive,  ^Active. 

3.  Perfect  Infinitive, 

III.    Participial  Stem,  from  which  are  formed  — 
i.    Perfect  Participle, 


2.    Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Indicative, 


Passive. 


3.  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive, 

4.  Perfect  Infinitive, 

Apparently  from  the  same  stem,  though  really  of  different  ori- 
gin, are  the  Supine,  the  Future  Active  Participle,  the  Future  Infinitive 
Active  and  Passive. 

I 

THE   FOUR   CONJUGATIONS. 

98.  There  are  in  Latin  four  regular  Conjugations,  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  by  the  vowel  of  the  termination 
of  the  Present  Infinitive  Active,  as  follows :  — 

P...,  INFINITIVE  DISTINGUISHING 

CONJUGATION.  TERMINATION.  VOWEL. 

I.  -are  a 

II.  -ere  e 

III.  -ere  6 

IV.  -ire  I 

99.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS.     The  Present  Indicative,  Present 
Infinitive,  Perfect  Indicative,  and  the  Perfect  Participle1 
constitute  the  Principal  Parts  of  a  Latin  verb,  —  so  called 
because  they  contain  the  different  stems,  from  which  the 
full  conjugation  of  the  verb  may  be  derived. 

1  Where  the  Perfect  Participle  is  not  in  use,  the  Future  Active  Participle,  if  it 
occurs,  is  given  as  one  of  the  Principal  Parts. 


56  Inflections. 

CONJUGATION   OF   SUM. 

100.  The  irregular  verb  sum  is  so  important  for  the 
conjugation  of  all  other  verbs  that  its  inflection  is  given 
at  the  outset. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
PRES.  IND.  PRES.  INF.  PERF.  IND.  Fur.  PARTIC.J 

sum  esse  fui  futurus 


SINGULAR. 

sum,  I  am, 
es,  thou  art, 
est,  he  is ; 


eram,  I  was, 
eras,  thou  wast, 
erat,  he  was ; 


ero,  /  shall  be, 
eris,  thou  wilt  be, 
erit,  he  will  be ; 

fui,  /  have  been,  I  was, 


INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

PLURAL. 

sumus,  we  are, 
estis,  you  are, 
sunt,  they  are. 

IMPERFECT. 

eramus,  we  were, 
eratis,  you  were, 
erant,  they  were. 

FUTURE. 

erimus,  we  shall  be, 
eritis,  you  will  be, 
erunt,  they  will  be. 

PERFECT. 

i 

fuimus,  we  have  been,  we  were, 


fuisti,  thou  hast  been,  thou  wast,     fuistis,  you  have  been,  you  were, 
fuit,  he  has  been,  he  was ;  A!S*«  **  '  r  ^/  h*1™  oeeni  they  were. 


fueram,  /  had  been, 
fueras,  thou  hadst  been, 
fuerat,  he  had  been ; 


PLUPERFECT. 

fueramus,  we  had  been, 
fueratis,  you  had  been, 
fuerant,  they  had  been. 


FUTURE  PERFECT. 

fuero,  /  shall  have  been,  fuerimus,  we  shall  have  been, 

fueris,  thou  wilt  have  been,  fueritis,  you  will  have  been, 

fuerit,  he  will  have  been ;  fuerint,  they  will  have  been. 


1  The  Perfect  Participle  is  wanting  in  sum, 


Conjugation  of  Sum. 


57 


SINGULAR. 

sim,  may  I  be, 

sis,  mayst  thou  be, 

sit,  let  him  be,  may  he  be', 


essem,2  /  should  be, 
esses,2  thou  wouldst  be, 
esset,2  he  would  be ; 


SUBJUNCTIVE.i 

PRESENT. 

PLURAL. 

simus,  let  us  be, 

sitis,  be  ye,  may  you  be, 

sint,  let  them  be. 

IMPERFECT. 

essemus,  we  should  be, 
essetis,  you  would  be, 
essent,2  they  would  be. 


PERFECT. 


fuerim,  /  may  have  been, 
fueris,  thou  mayst  have  been, 
fuerit,  he  may  have  been ; 


fuerimus,  we  may  have  been, 
fueritis,  you  may  have  been, 
fuerint,  they  may  have  been. 


PLUPERFECT. 

fuissem,  /  should  have  been,  fuissemus,  we  should  have  been, 

fuisses,  thou  wouldst  have  been,  fuissetis,  you  would  have  been, 

fuisset,  he  would  have  beett±  fuissent,  they  would  have  been. 


IMPERATIVE. 


Pres.  es,  be  thou, 
Fut.    esto,  thou  shalt  be, 
esto,  he  shall  be; 


este,  be  y 
estote,  ye  s 
sunto,  they 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  esse,  to  be. 

Perf.  fuisse,  to  have  been. 

Fut.    futurus  esse,3  to  be  about  to  be. 


PARTICIPLE. 


Fut.    futurus,4  about  to  be. 


1  The  meanings  of  the  different  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  are  so  many  and  so 
varied,  particularly  in  subordinate  clauses,  that  no  attempt  can  be  made  to  give 
them  here.     For  fuller  information  the  pupil  is  referred  to  the  Syntax. 

2  For  essem,  esses,   esset,  essent,  the   forms   forem,   fores,   foret, 
forent  are  sometimes  used. 

3  For  futurus  esse  the  form  fore  is  often  used, 

4  Declined  like  bonus,  -a,  -urn, 


58  Inflections. 

FIRST  (OR   A-)   CONJUGATION. 
101.  Active  Voice.  —  Amo,  /  love. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
PRES.  IND.  PRES.  INF.  PERF.  IND.  PERF.  PASS.  PARTIC. 

amo  amare  amavi  amatus 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

amo,  /  love,  amamus,  we  love, 

amas;  you  love,  amatis,  you  love, 

amat,  he  loves;  amant,  they' love. 

IMPERFECT. 

amabam,  I  was  loving,  amabamus,  we  were  loving, 

amabas,  you  were  loving,  amabatis,  you  were  loving, 

amabat,  he  was  loving-,  amabant,  they  were  loving. 

FUTURE. 

amabo,  I  shall  love,  amabimus,  we  shall  love, 

amabis,  you  will  love,  amabitis,  you  will  love, 

amabit,  he  will  love ;  amabunt,  they  will  love. 

PERFECT. 

amavi,  /  have  loved,  I  loved,  amavimus,  we  have  loved,  we  loved, 

arnavisti,  yoii  have  loved,  you       amavistis,  you  have  loved,  you  loved, 
love       ' 

ved^  he  loved-,       amaverunt,  -ere,  they  have  loved,  they 
loved. 

PLUPERFECT. 

amaveram,  /  had  loved,  amaveramus,  we  had  loved, 

amaveras,  you  had  loved,  amaveratis,  you  had  loved, 

amaverat,  he  had  loved;  amaverant,  they  had  loved. 

\ 
FUTURE  PERFECT. 

amavero,  /  shall  have  loved,  amaverimus,  we  shall  have  loved, 

amaveri«,  you  will  have  loved,        amaveritis,  you  will  have  loved, 
amaverit,  he  will  have  loved;         amaverint,  they  will  have  loved. 

\ 


First  Conjugation. 


59 


SINGULAR. 

am  em,  may  I  love, 
ames,  may  you  love, 
amet,  let  him  love ; 


amarem,  /  should  love, 
am  ares,  you  would  love, 
amaret,  he  would  love ; 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

PLURAL. 

amemus,  let  us  love, 
ametis,  may  you  love, 
arrient,  let  them  love. 

IMPERFECT. 

amaremus,  w e  should  love, 
amaretis;  you  would  love, 
amarent,  they  would  love. 


PERFECT. 

amaverim,  /  may  have  loved,  amaverirrius,  we  may  have  loved, 

amaveris,  you  may  have  loved,          amaveritis,  you  may  have  loved, 
amaverit,  he  may  have  loved;     t       amaverint,  they  may  have  loved. 

PLUPERFECT. 

amavissem,  •/  should  have  loved,  amavissemus,1^  should  have  loved, 
amavisses,  you  would  have  loved,  amavissetis,  you  would  have  loved, 
amavisset,  he  would  have  loved;  amavissent,  they  would  have  loved. 


IMPERATIVE. 


Pres.  ama,  love  thou ; 
Fut.    amato,  thou  shalt  love, 
amato,  he  shall  love ; 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  am  are,  to  love. 
Perf.  amavisse,  to  have  loved. 
Fut.    amaturus  esse,  to  be  about 
to  love. 


amate,  love  ye. 
amatote,  ye  shall  love, 
am  an  to,  they  shall  love. 


jiflBfev 
PARTICIPLE. 


Pres.  amans,1  loving. 
(Gen.  amaiitid^r 
Fut.    amaturus,  about  to  love. 


GERUND. 

Gen.  amandi,  of  loving, 

Dat.  amando,  for  loving, 

Ace.  amandum,  loving, 

Abl.  amando,  by  loving. 


SUPINE. 


Ace.    amatum,  to  love, 

Abl.    amatu,  to  love,  be  loved. 


1  For  declension  of  amans,  see  §  70.  3. 


6o 


Inflections. 


102. 


FIRST   (OR   A-)   CONJUGATION. 
Passive  Voice.  —  Amor,  /  am  loved. 


PRES.  IND. 
amor 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
PRES.  INF. 

amari 


PERF.  IND. 
amatus  sum 


SINGULAR. 

amor 

amaris 

amatur 


amabar 

amabaris,  or  -re 
amabatur 


amabor 

amaberis,  or  -re 
amabitur 


INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
I  am  loved. 


IMPERFECT. 
/  was  loved. 


FUTURE. 
/  shall  be  loved. 


PLURAL. 
amamur 
amamini 
amantur 


amabamur 
amabamini 
amabantur 


amabimur 
amabimini 
amabuntur 


PERFECT. 
/  have  been  loved  or  /  was  loved. 


amatus  (-a,  -um)  sum  * 
amatus  es 
amatus  est 

PLUPERFECT. 

/  had  been  loved. 
amatus  eram a 
amatus  eras 
amatus  erat 


amatus  er5  x 
amatus  eris 
amatus  erit 


FUTURE  PERFECT. 
7  shall  have  been  loved. 


amati  (-ae,  -a)  sumus 
amatl  estis 
amati  sunt 


amati  eramus 
amati  eratis 
amati  erant 


amati  erimus 
amati  eritis 
amati  erunt 


1  Ful,  fuistl,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  for  sum,  es,  etc.    So  fueram,  fueras, 
etc.,  for  eram,  etc. ;  fuero,  etc.,  for  ero,  etc. 


First  Conjugation. 


6l 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  be  loved,  let  him  be  loved. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

amer  amemur 

ameris,  or  -re  amemini 

ametur  amentur 

IMPERFECT. 

/  should  be  loved,  he  would  be  loved. 
amarer  amaremur 

amareris,  or  -re  amaremini 

amaretur  amarentur 


amatus  sim  1 
amatus  sis 
amatus  sit 


PERFECT. 
/  may  have  been  loved. 


amati  simus 
amati  sitis 
amati  sint 


PLUPERFECT. 

/  should  have  been  loved,  he  would  have  been  loved. 
amatus  essem 1  amati  essemus 

amatus  esses  amati  essetis 

amatus  esset  amati  essent 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  amare,  be  thou  loved',  amamini,  be  ye  loved. 

Fut.    amator,  thou  shalt  be  loved, 

amator,  he  shall  be  loved',  amantor,  they  shall  be  loved. 


INFINITIVE. 


PARTICIPLE. 


Pres.  amari,  to  be  loved. 

Perf.  amatus  esse,  to  have  been        Perfect.        amatus,  having  been 

loved.  loved. 

Fut.    amatum.  iri?  to  be  about  to       Gerundive,  amandus,  to  be  loved, 

be  loved.  deserving     to     be 

loved. 

1  Puerim,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  for  sim  ;  so  fuissem,  etc.,  for  essem. 


62 


Inflections. 


103. 


SECOND    (OR   E-)   CONJUGATION. 
Active  Voice.  —  Moneo,  /  advise. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  INF.  PERF.  IND. 

moneo  monere  monui 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
I  advise. 


PERF.  PASS.  PARTIC. 
monitus 


SINGULAR. 

moneo 
mones 
monet 


PLURAL. 

monemus 

monetis 

monent 


IMPERFECT. 
/  was  advising,  or  /  advised. 


monebam 

monebas 

monebat 


mon§bo 
monebis 
monebit 


FUTURE. 
/  shall  advise. 


monebamus 

monebatis 

monebant 


monebimus 

monebitis 

monebunt 


monui 

monuisti 

monuit 


monueram 

monueras 

monuerat 


monuero 
monueris 
monuerit 


PERFECT. 
/  have  advised,  or  /  advised. 

monuimus 


PLUPERFECT. 
/  had  advised. 


monuistis 
monuerunt,  or  -ere 


monueramus 

monueratis 

monuerant 


FUTURE  PERFECT. 
/  shall  have  advised. 


monuerimus 

monueritis 

monuerint 


Second  Conjugation. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  advise,  let  him  advise. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

moneam  moneamus 

moneas  moneatis 

moneat  moneant 

IMPERFECT. 
/  should  advise,  he  would  advise. 


monerem 

moneres 

monSret 


moneremug 
TtTSneretis 
monSrent 


PERFECT. 

/  may  have  advised. 

monuerim  monuerimus 

monueris  monueritis 

monuerit  monuerint 

PLUPERFECT. 

/  should  have  advised,  he  would  have  advised. 
monuissem  monuissemus 

monuisses  monuissetis 

monuisset  monuissent 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  mon§,  advise  thou ;  monete,  advise  ye. 

Fut.    moneto,  thou  shalt  advise,        monetote,  ye  shall  advise, 
moneto,  he  shall  advise ;  monento,  they  shall  advise. 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  monere,  to  advise. 
Perf.  monuisse,  to  have  advised. 
Fut.    moniturus  esse,  to  be  about 
to  advise. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  monens,  advising. 
(Gen.  monentis.) 
Fut.    moniturus,  about  to  advise. 


GERUND. 

Gen.  monendi,  of  advising, 

Dat.  monendo,  for  advising, 

Ace.  monendum,  advising, 

Abl.  monendo,  by  advising. 


SUPINE. 


Ace.    monitum,  to  advise. 

Abl.^    monitu,  to  advise,  be  advised 


64 


Inflections. 


104. 


SECOND    (OR   B-)   CONJUGATION. 
Passive  Voice.  —  Moneor,  I  am  advised. 


PRES.  IND. 

moneor 


SINGULAR. 

moneor 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
PRES.  INF. 
moneri 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 
/  am  advised. 


monetur 


monebar 
monebaris,  or  -re 
monebatur 


IMPERFECT. 
I  was  advised. 


FUTURE. 
/  shall  be  advised. 


monebor 
moneberis,  or-re 
monebitur 


PERF.  IND. 

monitus  sum 


PLURAL. 

monemur 
monemini 
monentur 


monebamur 
monebamini 
monebantur 


monebimur 
monebimini 
monebuntur 


PERFECT. 

/  have  been  advised,  I  was  advised. 
monitus  sum  moniti  sunius 

monitus  es  moniti  estis 

monitus  est  moniti  sunt 


PLUPERFECT. 
/  had  been  advised. 


monitus  eram 
monitus  eras 
monitus  erat 


moniti  eramus 
moniti  eratis 
moniti  erant 


FUTURE  PERFECT. 
/  shall  have  been  advised. 


monitus  ero 
monitus  eris 
monitus  erit 


moniti  erimus 
moniti  eritis 
moniti  erunt 


Second  Conjugation.  u? 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  be  advised,  let  him  be  advised. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

monear  moneamur 

monearis,  or  -re  moneamini 

moneatur  moneantur 

IMPERFECT. 
/  should  be  advised,  he  would  be  advised. 

monerer  moneremur 

monereris,  or  -re  moneremini 

moneretur  monerentur 

PERFECT. 

/  may  have  been  advised. 

monitus  aim  moniti  simus 

monitus  sis  moniti  sitis 

monitus  sit  moniti  sint 

PLUPERFECT. 
/  should  have  been  advised,  he  would  have  been  advised. 

monitus  essem  moniti  essemus 

monitus  esses  moniti  essetis 

monitus  esset  moniti  essent 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  monere,  be  thou  advised;  monemini,  be  ye  advised. 

Fut.    monetor,  thou  shalt  be  ad- 
vised, 
monetor,  he  shall  be  advised.       monentor,  they  shall  be  advised. 


INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  moneri,  to  be  advised. 

Perf.  monitus  esse?  to  have  been  Perfect.         monitus,  advised. 

advised.  Gerundive,  monendus,  to  be  ad- 
Fut.    monitum  iri,  to  be  about  to  vised,  deserving  to 

be  advised.  be  advised. 

F  t 


Inflections. 

THIRD    (OR   CONSONANT-)   CONJUGATION. 
105.  Active  Voice.  —  Rego,  I  rule. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
PRES.  IND.  PRES.  INF.  PERF.  IND.          PERF.  PASS.  PARTIC. 

rego  regere  rexi  rectus 


INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

SINGULAR.  /  rule.  PLURAL. 

rego  regimus 

regis  regitis 

regit  regunt 

IMPERFECT. 

I  was  ruling,  or  /  ruled. 

regebam  regebamus 

regebas  regebatis 

regebat  regebant 

FUTURE. 

/  shall  rule. 

regam  regemus 

reges  regetis 

reget  regent 

PERFECT. 

/  have  ruled,  or  /  ruled. 

rexi  reximus 

rexisti  rexistis 

rexit  rexerunt,  or  -ere 

PLUPERFECT. 

/  had  ruled. 

rexeram  rexeramus 

rexerts  rexeratis 

rexerat  rexerant 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 
/  shall  have  ruled. 

rexero  rexerimus 

rexeris  rexeritis 

rexerit  rexerint 


Third  Conjugation.  67 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  rule,  let  him  rule. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

regain  regamus 

regas  regatis 

regat  regant 

IMPERFECT. 

/  should  rule,  he  would  rule. 

regerem  regeremus 

regeres  regeretis 

regeret  regerent 

PERFECT. 

/  may  have  ruled. 

rexerim  rexerimus 

rexeris  rexeritis 

rexerit  rexerint 

PLUPERFECT. 

/  should  have  ruled,  he  would  have  ruled. 

rexissem  rexissemus 

rexisses  rexissetis 

rexisset  rexissent 


IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  rege,  rule  thou ;  regite,  rule  ye. 

Fut.    regito,  thou  shalt  rule,  regitSte,  ye  shall  rule, 

regito,  he  shall  rule ;  regunto,  they  shall  rule. 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  regere,  to  rule.  Pres.  regens,  ruling. 
Perf.  rexisse,  to  have  ruled.  (Gen.  regentis.) 

Fut.    recturus  esse,  to  be  about  Fut.    recturus,  about  to  ride, 
to  rule. 

GERUND.  SUPINE. 

Gen.    regendi,  of  ruling, 

Dat.    regendo,  for  ruling, 

.Ace.    regendum,  ruling,  Ace.    rectum,  to  rule, 

Abl.    regendo,  by  ruling.  Abl.    rectu,  to  rule,  be  ruled. 


68 


Inflections. 


THIRD    (OR   CONSONANT-)    CONJUGATION. 
106.  Passive  Voice.  —  Regor,  /  am  ruled. 


PRES.  IND. 

regor 


SINGULAR. 

regor 

regeris 

regitur 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
PRES.  INF. 

regi 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
I  am  ruled. 


IMPERFECT. 
I  iv as  ruled. 


PERF.  IND. 

rectus  sum 


regebar 
regebaris,  or  -re 
regebatur 

FUTURE. 

/  shall  be  ruled. 
regar 

regeris,  or  -re 
regetur 

PERFECT. 

/  have  been  ruled,  or  /  was 
rectus  £fim      *• 
rectus  es 
rectus  est 


PLUPERFECT. 
I  had  been  rufod. 


rectus  eram 
rectus  eras 
rectus  erat 


rectus  ero 
rectus  eris 
rectus  erit 


PLURAL. 

regimur 
regimini 
reguntur 


regebamur 
regebamiiii 
regebantur 


regemur 
regemini 
regentur 

ruled. 

recti  sumus 
recti  estis 
recti  sunt 


recti  eramus 
recti  eratis 
recti  erant 


FUTURE  PERFECT. 
/  shall  have  been  ruled. 


recti  erimus 
recti  eritis 
recti  erunt 


Third  Conjugation.  69 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  be  ruled,  let  him  be  ruled. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

regar  regamur 

regaris,  or  -re  regamini 

regatur  regantur 

IMPERFECT. 

/  should  be  ruled,  he  would  be  ruled. 

regerer  regeremur 

regereris,  or  -re  regeremini 

regeretur  regerentur 

PERFECT. 

/  may  have  been  ruled. 

rectus  sim  recti  slmus 

rectus  sis  recti  sitis 

rectus  sit  recti  sint 

PLUPERFECT. 

/  should  have  been  ruled,  he  would  have  been  ruled. 

rectus  essem  recti  essemus 

rectus  esses  recti  essetis 

rectus  esset  recti  essent 


IMPERATIVE.     o-> 

Pres.  regere,  be  thou  ruled;  regimini,  be  ye  ruled. 

Fut.    regitor,  thou  shall  be  ruled, 

regitor,  he  shall  be  ruled-,  reguntor,  they  shall  be  ruled. 


INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  regi,  to  be  ruled. 

Perf.  rectus  esse,  to  have  been  Perfect.        rectus,  ruled. 

ruled.  Gemndive.  regendus,  to  be  ruled, 

Fut.    rectum  iri,  to  be  about  to  deserving     to     be 

be  ruled,  ruled. 


Inflections. 


FOURTH    (OR  I-)   CONJUGATION. 
107.  Active  Voice.  —  Audio,  I  hear. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
PRES.  INF.  PERF.  IND.          PERF.  PASS.  PARTIC. 

audire  audivi  auditus 


PRES.  IND. 

audio 


SINGULAR. 

audio 
audis 
audit 


audiebam 

audiebas 

audiebat 


audiam 

audies 

audiet 


INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

I  hear.  PLURAL. 

audimus 
auditis 
audiunt 

IMPERFECT. 
/  was  hearing,  or  /  heard. 

audiebamus 
audiebatis 


FUTURE. 
/  shall  hear. 


audiebant 


audiemus 

audietis 

audient 


PERFECT. 
/  have  heard)  or  /  heard. 


audivi 

audlvimus 

audivisti 

audivistis 

audivit 

audlverunt,  or 

-ere 

PLUPERFECT. 

/  had  heard. 

audiveram 

audlveramus 

audiveras 

audlveratis 

audiverat 

audlverant 

audivero 
audiveris 
audlverit 


FUTURE  PERFECT. 
/  shall  have  heard. 


audiverimus 

audiveritis 

audiverint 


SINGULAR. 

audiam 

audias 

audiat 


Fourth  Conjugation. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  hear,  let  him  hear. 


PLURAL. 
audiamus 
audiatis 
audiant 


IMPERFECT. 

/  should  hear,  he  would  hear. 
audirem  audiremus 

audires  audiretis 

audiret  audirent 


audiverim 

audlveris 

audiverit 


PERFECT. 
/  may  have  heard. 


audlverimus 

audlveritis 

audiverint 


PLUPERFECT. 

/  should  have  heard,  he  would  have  heard. 
audivissem  audivissemus 

audivisses  audivissetis 

audivisset  audivissent 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  audi,  hear  thou;  audite,  hear  ye. 

Fut.    audito,  thou  shalt  hear,  auditote,  ye  shall  hear, 

audits,  he  shall  hear;  audiunto,  they  shall  hear. 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  audire,  to  hear. 
Perf.  audivisse,  to  have  heard. 
Fut.    auditurus  esse,  to  be  about 
to  hear. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  audiens,  hearing. 
(Gen.  audientis.) 
Fut.    auditurus,  about  to  hear. 


%  GERUND. 

Gen.  audiendi,  of  hearing, 

Dat.  audiendo,  for  hearing, 

Ace.  audiendum,  hearing, 

Abl.  audiendo,  by  hearing. 


Ace. 
Abl. 


SUPINE. 


audltum,  to  hear, 
audltu,  to  hear,  be  heard. 


Inflections. 


108. 


FOURTH    (OR  I-)   CONJUGATION. 
Passive  Voice.  —  Audior,  /  am  heard. 


PRES.  IND, 
audior 


SINGULAR. 

audior 
audiris 
audltur 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

PRES.  INF. 

audiri 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
/  am  heard. 


audiebar 
audiebaris,  or  -re 
audiebatur 


IMPERFECT. 
/  was  heard. 


PERF.  IND. 
auditus  sum 


PLURAL. 

audimur 
audimini 
audiuntur 


audiebamur 
audiebamin! 
audiebantur 


FUTURE. 

audiar 

/  shall  be  heard. 

audiemur 

audieris,  or  -re 
audietur 

audiemini 
audientur 

PERFECT. 

/  have  been  heard,  or  /  was  heard. 
auditus  sum  audit!  sumus 

auditus  es  audit!  estis 

auditus  est  audit!  sunt 


PLUPERFECT. 
/  had  been  heard. 


auditus  eram 
auditus  eras 
auditus  erat 


audit!  eramus 
audit!  eratis 
audit!  erant 


FUTURE  PERFECT. 
/  shall  have  been  heard. 


auditus  ero 
auditus  eris 
auditus  erit 


audit!  erimus 
audit!  eritis 
audit!  erunt 


Fourth  Conjugation.  73 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  be  heard*  let  him  be  heard. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

audiar  audiamur 

audiaris,  or  -re  audiamini 

audiatur  audiantur 

IMPERFECT. 
/  should  be  heard,  he  would  be  heard. 

audirer  audiremur 

audireris,  or  -re  audiremini 

audiretur  audirentur 

PERFECT. 

/  may  have  been  heard. 

auditus  sixn  audit!  simus 

auditus  sis  audit!  sitis 

auditus  sit  audit!  sint 

PLUPERFECT. 
/  should  have  been  heard,  he  would  have  been  heard. 

auditus  essem  audit!  essemus 

auditus  esses  audit!  essetis 

auditus  esset  audit!  essent 


IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  aud!re,  be  thou  heard;  aud!min!,  be  ye  heard. 

Fut.    auditor,  thou  shalt  be  heard, 

auditor,  he  shall  be  heard;  audiuntor,  they  shall  be  heard. 


INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  aud!r!,  to  be  heard. 

Perf.  auditus  esse,  to  have  been  Perfect.         auditus,  heard. 

heard.  Gerundive,   audiendus,    to    be 
Fut.    audltum  !r!,  to  be  about  to  heard,  deserving 

be  heard.  to  be  heard. 


74  Inflections. 


VERBS    IN   -10   OF  THE   THIRD   CONJUGATION. 

X 

109.  i.    Verbs  in  -io  of  the  Third  Conjugation  take  the 
endings  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation,  wherever  the   latter 
endings  have  two  successive  vowels.     This  occurs  only  in 
the  Present  System. 

2.    Here  belong  — 

a)  capio,  to  take ;  cupio,  to  desire;  facio,  to  make;  fodio,  to 
dig;  fugio,  to  flee;  jacio,  to  throw;  pario,  to  bear ;  quatio, 
to  shake ;  rapio,  to  seize. 

b)  Compounds  of  laciS  and  specie  (both  ante-classical);   as, 
allicio,  entice;  conspicio,  behold. 

c)  The  deponents  gradior,  to  go ;  morior,  to  die ;  patior,  to 
suffer. 

110.  Active  Voice.  —  Capio,  /  take. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  INF.  PERF.  IND.  PERF.  PASS.  PARTIC. 

capio,  capere,  cepT,  captus. 

INDICATIVE    MOOD, 

SINGULAR.  PRESENT  TENSE.  PLURAL. 

capio,  capis,  capit ;  capimus,  capitis,  capiunt. 

IMPERFECT. 
capiebam,  -iebas,  -iebat ;  capiebamus,  -iebatis,  -iebant. 

FUTURE. 
capiam,  -ies,  -iet;  capiemus,  -ietis,  -ient. 

PERFECT. 
cepi,  -isti,  -it ;  cepimus,  -istis,  -erunt,  or  ere. 

PLUPERFECT. 
ceperam,  -eras,  -erat ;  ceperamus,  -eratis,  -erant. 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 
cepero,  -eris,  -erit ;  ceperimus,  -eritis,  -erint. 


Verbs  in  -16  of  the  Third  Conjugation.  75 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

SINGULAR.  PRESENT.  PLURAL. 

capiam,  -ias,  -iat ;  capiamus,  -iatis,  -iant. 

IMPERFECT. 
caperem,  -eres,  -eret ;  caperemus,  -eretis,  -erent. 

PERFECT. 
ceperim,  -eris,  -erit ;  ceperimus,  -eritis,  -erint. 

PLUPERFECT. 
cepissem,  -isses,  -isset ;  cepissemus,  -issetis,  -issent. 

IMPERATIVE. 
Pres.   cape ;  capite. 

Fut.     capito,  capitote, 

capito ;  capiunto. 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  capere.  Pres.   capiens. 
Perf.   cepisse. 

Fut.     capturus  esse.  Fut.    capturus. 

GERUND.  SUPINE. 

Gen.    capiendl, 

Dat.     capiendo, 

Ace.     capiendum,  Ace.     captum, 

Abl.     capiendo.  Abl.     captu. 


111.  Passive  Voice.  —  Capior,  ram  taken. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
PRES.  IND.  PRES.  INF.  PERF.  IND. 

capior,  capi,  captus  sum. 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

SINGULAR.  PRESENT  TENSE.  PLURAL. 

capior,  caperis,  capitur ;  capimur,  capimim,  capiuntur. 

IMPERFECT. 
capiebar,  -iebaris,  -iebatur ;  capiebamur,  -iebamini,  iebantur. 

FUTURE. 
capiar,  -ieris,  -ietur ;  capiemur,  -ieminT,  -ientur. 


76  Inflections. 

SINGULAR.  PERFECT.  PLURAL. 

captus  sum,  es,  est ;  capti  sumus,  estis,  sunt. 

PLUPERFECT. 
captus  eram,  eras,  erat ;  capti  eramus,  eratis,  erant. 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 
captus  ero,  eris,  erit ;  capti  erimus,  eritis,  erunt. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
capiar,  -iaris,  -iatur ;  capiamur,  -iaminl,  -iantur. 

IMPERFECT. 
caperer,  -ereris,  -eretur ;  caperemur,  -eremim,  -erentur. 

PERFECT. 
captus  sim,  sis,  sit ;  capti  slmus,  sltis,  sint. 

PLUPERFECT. 
captus  essem,  esses,  esset ;  capti  essemus,  essetis,  essent. 

IMPERATIVE. 
Pres.   capere ;  capimini. 

Put.    capitor, 

capitor ;  capiuntor. 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.   capi. 

Perf.   captus  esse.  Perfect.        captus. 

Fut.    captum  In.  Gerundive,  capiendus. 


DEPONENT   VERBS. 

112.    Deponent  Verbs  have  in  the  main  Passive  forms 
with  Active  meaning.     But  — 

a.  They  have  the  following  Active  forms :    Future   Infinitive, 
Present  and  Future  Participles,  Gerund,  and  Supine. 

b.  They  have  the  following  Passive  meanings :  always  in  the 
Gerundive,  and  sometimes  in  the  Perfect  Passive  Participle ; 
as,— 

sequendus,  to  be  followed ;  adeptus,  attained. 


Deponent  Verbs. 

113.    Paradigms  of  Deponent  Verbs  are  — 

I.  Conj.         miror,  mirari,  miratus  sum,  admire. 
II.  Conj.         vereor,  vereri,  veritus  sum,  fear. 

III.  Conj.         sequor,  sequi,  secutus  sum,  follow. 

IV.  Conj.         largior,  largm,  largitus  sum,  give. 
III.  (in-ior)    patior,  pati,  passus  sum,  suffer. 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 


77 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

III  (in-ior). 

Pres. 

miror 
mlraris 
mlratur 

vereor 
vereris 
veretur 

sequor 
sequeris 
sequitur 

largior 
larglris 
largltur 

patior 
pateris 
patitur 

mlramur 
miramini 
mirantur 

veremur 
veremini 
verentur 

sequimur 
sequimini 
sequuntur 

larglmur 
larglminl 
largiuntur 

patimur 
patiminl 
patiuntur 

Impf. 
Put. 
Perf. 
Plup. 
P.P. 

mirabar 
mlrabor 
miratus  sum 
miratus  era  in 
miratus  ero 

verebar 
verebor 
veritus  sum 
veritus  eram 
veritus  ero 

sequebar 
sequar 
secutus  sum 
secutus  eram 
secutus  ero 

largiebar 
largiar 
largitus  sum 
largitus  eram 
largitus  ero 

patiebar 
patiar 
passus  sum 
passus  eram 
passus  ero 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. 
Impf. 
Perf. 
Plup. 

mlrer 
mlrarer 
miratus  sim 
miratus  essem 

verear 
vererer 
veritus  sim 
veritus  essem 

sequar 
sequerer 
secutus  sim 
secutus  essem 

largiar 
larglrer 
largitus  sim 
largitus  essem 

patiar 
paterer 
passus  sum 
passus  essem 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres. 
Put. 

mirare 
mirator 

verere 
veretor 

sequere 
sequitor 

largire 
largltor 

patere 
patitor 

INFINITIVE. 

Pies. 
Perf. 
Put. 

mlrari 
miratus  esse 
mlraturus  esse 

vereii 
veritus  esse 
veriturus  esse 

sequi 
secutus  esse 
secuturus  esse 

larglri 
largitus  esse 
larglturus  esse 

pati 
passus  esse 
passurus  esse 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. 
Put. 
Perf. 
Ger. 

mirans 
mlraturus 
miratus 
mlrandus 

verens 
veriturus 
veritus 
verendus 

sequens 
secuturus 
secutus 
sequendus 

largiens 
larglturus 
largitus 
largiendus 

patiens 
passurus 
passus 
patiendus 

GERUND. 

mirandl,  verendi  sequendl  largiendl  patiendi 

mlrando,  etc.        verendo,  etc.      sequendo,  etc.   largiendo,  etc.    patiendo,  etc. 

SUPINE. 

mlratum,  -tu        veritum,  -tu       secutum,  -tu       largitum,  -tu      passum,  -su 


78  Inflections. 


SEMI-DEPONENTS. 

114.  i.    Semi-Deponents  are  verbs  which  have  the  Pres- 
ent System  in  the  Active  Voice,  but  the  Perfect  System  in 
the  Passive  without  change  of  meaning.     Here  belong  — 

audeo,     audere,     ausus  sum,  to  dare. 
gaudeo,  gaudere,  gavisus  sum,  to  rejoice. 
soled,      solere,      solitus  sum,  to  be  wont. 
fid5,         fidere,      fisus  sum,  to  trust. 

2.  The   following  verbs   have   a   Perfect   Passive   Participle   with 
Active  meaning :  — 

adolesco,  grow  up;  adultus,  having  grown  up. 

cenare,  dine ;  cenatus,  having  dined. 

placere,  please]  placitus,  having  pleased,  agreeable. 

prandere,  lunch ;  pransus,  having  lunched. 

potare,  drink ;  potus,  having  drunk. 

jurare,  swear;  juratus,  having  sworn. 

a.    Juratus  is  used  in  a  passive  sense  also. 

3.  Revertor  and  devertor  both  regularly  form  their  Perfect  in 
the  Active  Voice  ;  viz.  — 

revertor,    revert!  (Inf.),     revert!  (Perf.),  to  return. 
devertor,   devert!  (Inf.),   devert!  (Perf.),  to  turn  aside. 

PERIPHRASTIC   CONJUGATION. 

115,  There    are    two    Periphrastic    Conjugations,  —  the 
Active  and  the  Passive.     The  Active  is  formed  by  com- 
bining the  Future  Active  Participle  with  the  auxiliary  sum, 
the  Passive  by  combining  the  Gerundive  with  the  same 
auxiliary. 

Active  Periphrastic  Conjugation. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  amaturus  (-a,  -um)  sum,  /  am  about  to  love. 

Imp.  amaturus  eram,  /  was  about  to  love. 

Put.  amaturus  ero,  /  shall  be  about  to  love. 

Perf.  amaturus  f  ui,  /  have  been  (was)  about  to  love. 

Plup.  amaturus  fueram,  /  had  been  about  to  love. 

Fut.  P.  amaturus  fuero,  I  shall  have  been  about  to  love. 


Peculiarities  of  Conjugation.  79 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres.      amaturus  Sim,  /  may  be  about  to  love. 
Imp.       amaturus  essem,  /  might  be  about  to  love. 
Perf.      amaturus.  fuerim,  /  may  have  been  about  to  love. 
Plup.      amaturus  fuissem,  /  might  have  been  about  to  love. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.      amaturus  esse,  to  be  about  to  love. 

Perf.      amaturus  fuisse,  to  have  been  about  to  love. 

Passive  Periphrastic  Conjugation. 
INDICATIVE. 

Pres.      amandus  (-a,  -um)  sum,  /  am  to  be  loved,  must  be  loved. 

Imp.      amandus  eram,  /  -was  to  be  loved. 

Put.        amandus  ero,  /  shall  deserve  to  be  loved. 

Perf.      amandus  f ui,  /  was  to  be  loved. 

Plup.     amandus  fueram,  /  had  deserved  to  be  loved. 

Put.  P.   amandus  fuero,  /  shall  have  deserved  to  be  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres.      amandus  sim,  I  may  deserve  to  be  loved. 
Imp.       amandus  essem,  /  might  deserve  to  be  loved. 
Perf.       amandus  fuerim,  /  may  have  deserved  to  be  loved. 
Plup.      amandus  fuissem,  /  might  have  deserved  to  be  loved. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.       amandus  esse,  to  deserve  to  be  loved. 

Perf.       amandus  fuisse,  to  have  deserved  to  be  loved. 


PECULIARITIES   OF   CONJUGATION. 

116.  i.  Perfects  in  -avi,  -evi  and  -ivi,  with  the  forms  derived 
from  them,  often  drop  the  ve  or  vi  before  endings  beginning  with  r  or 
s.  So  also  novi  (from  nosco)  and  the  compounds  of  movi  (from 
moveo) .  Thus  :  — 

amavistl            amasti  delevisti  delesti 

amavisse           amasse  delevisse  delesse 

amaverunt        amarunt  deleverunt  delerunt 

amaverim          amarim  deleverim  delerim 

amaveram         amaram  deleveram  deleram 

amavero           amaro  delevero  delero 

novistl               nosti  noverim  norim 

riovisse              nosse  noveram  noram 

audivistl           audlsti  audlvisse  audlsse 


8o  Inflections. 

2.  In  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive  of  the  Third  and  Fourth  Conju- 
gations, the  endings  -undus,  -uiidi,  often  occur  instead  of  -endus  and 
-endi,  as  faciundus,  faciundi. 

3.  Dico,  duco,  facio,  form  the  Imperatives,  die,  due,  fac.     But 
compounds  of  facio  form  the  Imperative  in  -fice,  as  confice.     Com- 
pounds of  dico,  duco  accent  the  ultima ;  as,  educ,  edlc. 

4.  Archaic  and  Poetic  forms  :  — 

a.  The    ending  -ier   in   the    Present    Infinitive    Passive ;    as, 
amarier,  moiierier,  dicier,  for  amari,  moneri,  did. 

b.  The  ending  -ibam  for  -iebam  in  Imperfects  of  the  Fourth 
Conjugation,  and  -ibo  for  -iam  in  Futures ;    as,  scibam, 
scibo,  for  sciebam,  sciam. 

c.  Instead  of  the  fuller  forms,  in  such  words  as  dixisti,  scrip- 
sistis,    surrexisse,   we    sometimes   find   dixti,   scripstis, 
surrexe. 

d.  The  endings  -im,  -is,  etc.  (for  -am,  -as,  etc.)  occur  in  a  few 
Subjunctive  forms  ;  as,  edim  (eat\  duint,  perduint. 

5.  In  the  Future  Active  and  Perfect  Passive  Infinitive,  the  auxil- 
iary esse  is  often  omitted ;  as,  acturum  for  acturum  esse ;  ejectus 
for  ejectus  esse. 

FORMATION   OF   THE   VERB-STEMS. 
Formation  of  the  Present  Stem. 

117.  Many  verbs  employ  the  Verb  Stem  for  the  Present 
Stem  ; l  as,  dicere,  ducere,  amare,  monere,  audire.  Others 
form  the  Present  Stem  variously,  as  follows  :  — 

1 .  By  appending  the  vowels  a,  e,  I ;  as,  — 

juvare,   Present  Stem    juva-    (Verb  Stem  juv-). 
augere,         "  "       auge-  (    "         "      aug-). 

vincire,        "  "       vinci-  (    "         "      vine-). 

2.  By  adding  i,  as  capio,  Present  Stem  capi-  (Verb  Stem  cap-). 

3.  By  the  insertion  of  n  (m  before  labial-mutes)  before  the  final  con- 
sonant of  the  Verb  Stem  ;  as,  fundo  (Stem  fud-),  rumpo  (Stem  rup-). 

4.  By  appending  -n  to  the  Verb  Stem  ;  as, — 

cern-6  pell-6  (for  pel-no). 

1  Strictly  speaking,  the  Present  Stem  always  ends  in  a  Thematic  Vowel  (6  or 
6) ;  as,  dic-6-,  dic-6-;  ama-a"-,  am&-6-.  But  the  multitude  of  phonetic  changes 
involved  prevents  a  scientific  treatment  of  the  subject  here.  See  the  Appendix. 


Formation  of  the  Verb-Stems.  81 

5.  By  appending  t  to  the  Verb  Stem  ;  as, — 

flect-6. 

6.  By  appending  so  to  the  Verb  Stem  ;  as,  — 

cresc-6  scisc-6. 

7.  By  Reduplication,  that  is,  by  prefixing  the  initial  consonant  of 
the  Verb  Stem  with  i ;  as,  — 

gi-gn-6  (root  gen-) .  si-st-6  (root  sta-) . 

Formation  of  the  Perfect  Stem. 
118.   The  Perfect  Stem  is  formed  from  the  Verb  Stem  — 

1 .  By  adding  v  (in  case  of  Vowel  Stems)  ;  as,  — 

amav-i,  delev-i,  audiv-i. 

2.  By  adding  u  (in  case  of  some  Consonant  Stems)  ;  as,— 

strepu-T,  genu-i,  alu-i. 

3.  By  adding  s  (in  case  of  most  Consonant  Stems)  ;  as, — 

carp-6,  Perfect  carps-i. 

scrib-6,       "        scrips-i  (for  scrib-si) . 

rid-eo,        «        ris-i         (forrid-si). 

sent-io,       "        sens-i      (for  sent-sT) . 

dic-5,  "         dix-i       (i.e.  die-si). 

a.  Note  that  before  the  ending  -si  a  Dental  Mute  (t,  d)  is 
lost;  a  Guttural  Mute  (c,  g)  unites  with  s  to  form  x; 
while  the  Labial  b  is  changed  to  p. 

4.  Without  addition.     Of  this  formation  there  are  three  types  : 

a)  The  Verb  Stem  is  reduplicated  by  prefixing  the  initial  con- 
sonant with  the  following  vowel  or  e  ;  as,  — 

curro,  Perfect  cu-curri. 
posco,  "  po-posci. 
pello,  "  po-puli. 

NOTE  i.— Compounds,  with  the  exception  of  do,  sto,  disco,  posco,  omit 
the  reduplication.  Thus  :  com-puli,  but  re-poposci. 

NOTE  2.  —  Verbs  beginning  with  sp  or  st  retain  both  consonants  in  the  redu- 
plication, but  drop  s  from  the  stem ;  as,  spondeo,  spo-pondi ;  sto,  steti. 

b)  The  short  vowel  of  the  Verb  Stem  is  lengthened ;  as,  lego, 
leg! ;  ago,  egi. 

c)  The   vowel   of  the  Verb    Stem   is   unchanged ;    as,   verto, 
verti ;  miimo,  miiiiu. 

G 


82  Inflections. 

Formation  of  Participial  Stem. 

119.    The    Perfect    Passive    Participle,   from  which   the 
Participial  Stem  is  derived  by  dropping  -us,  is  formed :  — 

1.  By  adding  -tus  (sometimes  to  the  Present  Stem,  sometimes  to 
the  Verb  Stem) ;  as,  — 

ama-re,    Participle    ama-tus. 

dele-re,  "  dele-tus. 

audi-re,  "  audi-tus. 

leg-ere,  "  lec-tus. 

scrib-ere,  "  scrip-tus. 

senti-re,  "  sen-sus  (for  sent-tus) . 

caed-ere,  "  cae-sus  (for  caed-tus) . 

a.    Note  that  g,  before  t,  becomes  C  (see  §8,5);  b  becomes  p ;  while 
dt  or  tt  became  ss,  which  was  then  often  simplified  to  S  ($  8,  2). 

2.  After  the  analogy  of  Participles  like  sensus  and  caesus,  where 
-sus  arises  by  phonetic  change,  -sus  for  -tus  is  added  to  other  Verb 

Stems ;  as,  — 

lab-T,        Participle    lap-sus. 

fig-ere,  "  fi-xus. 

a.    The  same  consonant  changes  occur  in  appending  this  ending  -SUS  to 
the  stem  as  in  the  case  of  the  Perfect  ending  -si  (see  §  118,  3,  a). 

3.  A  few  Verbs  form  the  Participle  in  -itus  ;  as,  — 

doma-re,  dom-itus. 

mone-re,  mon-itus. 

4.  The  Future  Active  Participle  is  usually  identical  in  its  stem  with 
the   Perfect   Passive  Participle ;    as,  ama-tus,  amaturus ;    monitus, 
moniturus.     But  — 

juva-re,  Perf.  Partic.  jutus,         has  Fut.  Act.  Partic.  juvaturus.1 


lava-re, 

a 

a 

lautus, 

a 

tt 

tt 

tt 

lavaturus. 

par-ere, 

a 

u 

partus, 

tt 

a 

tt 

tt 

pariturus  . 

ru-ere, 

u 

a 

-rutus, 

tt 

tt 

tt 

tt 

ruiturus. 

seca-re, 

a 

a 

sectus, 

tt 

tt 

tt 

tt 

sedaturus. 

fru-i, 

a 

u 

-fructus, 

tt 

tt 

tt 

tt 

f  ruiturus. 

mor-i, 

it 

a 

mortuus, 

tt 

tt 

tt 

tt 

moriturus. 

ori-ri, 

u 

tt 

ortus, 

tt 

tt 

tt 

tt 

oriturus. 

1  But  the  compounds  of  juvo  sometimes  have  -juturus ;  as,  adjuturus. 


List  of  the  Most  Important  Verbs. 

LIST  OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  VERBS  WITH 
PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

First  (A-)  Conjugation. 

120.   I.   PERFECT  IN  -VI. 

amo  amare          amavi  amatus  love 

All  regular  verbs  of  the  First  Conjugation  follow  this  model. 


poto  potare          potavi 

II.    PERFECT  IN  -Ul. 


potus  (§  114,  2)         drink 


crepo 
cubo 

crepare 
cubare 

crepui 
cubui 

crepiturus 
cubiturus 

rattle 
lie  down 

domo 

domare 

domui 

domiturus 

tame 

frico 

fricare 

fricuT 

frictus  and  fricatus 

rub 

mico 
dlmico 
ex-plico 

micare 
dimicare 
explicare 

micui 
dlmicavi 
explicavi  (-ul) 

dlmicatum  (est)1 
explicatus  (-itus) 

glitter 
fight 
unfold 

im-plico 
seco 

implicare 
secare 

implicavl  (-ul) 
secui 

implicatus  (-itus) 
sectus 

entwine 
cut 

sono 

sonare 

sonul 

sonaturus 

sound 

tono 

tonare 

tonui 



thunder 

veto 

vetare 

vetui 

vetitus 

forbid 

III.    PERFECT  IN  -I  WITH  LENGTHENING  OF  THE  STEM  VOWEL. 


JUVO 

lavo 


juvare 
lavare 


juvi 
lavi 


jutus 
lautus 


help 
wash 


IV.    DEPONENTS. 

These  are  all  regular,  and  follow  miror,  mirarl,  miratus  sum. 


Second  (JE7-)  Conjugation. 

121.   I.   PERFECT  IN  -VI. 

deleo           delere  delevi  deletus 

fleo              flere  flevi  *  fletus 

com-pleo 2  complere  complevi  completus 

aboleo         abolere  abolevi  abolitus 

cieo3           ciere  clvi  citus 


destroy 
weep,  lament 
fill  up 
destroy 
set  in  motion 


1  Used  only  impersonally.  2  So  impleo,  expleo. 

3  Compounds  follow  the  Fourth  Conjugation  :  ace  id,  acclre,  etc. 


84 


Inflections. 


II.    PERFECT  IN  -UI. 

^ 
a.    Type  -eo,  -ere,  -ui,  -itus. 


arceo 

arcere 

arcuT 

keep  off 

coerceo 

coercere 

coercui 

coercitus 

hold  in  check 

exerceo 

exercere 

exercuT 

exercitus 

practise 

caleo 

calere 

calui 

calitOrus 

be  warm 

careo 

carere 

carui 

cariturus 

be  without 

doleo 

dolere 

dolui 

doliturus 

grieve 

habeo 

habere 

habuT 

habitus 

have 

debeo 

debere 

debui 

debitus 

owe 

praebeo 

praebere 

praebuT 

praebitus 

offer 

jaceo 

j  ace  re 

jacui 

jaciturus 

lie 

mereo 

mere  re 

merul 

meritus 

earn,  deserve 

moneo 

monere 

monui 

monitus 

advise 

noceo 

nocere 

nocui 

nocitum  (est) 

injure 

pareo 

parere 

paruT 

pariturus 

obey 

placeo 

placere 

placuT 

placiturus 

please 

taceo 

t  ace  re 

tacui 

taciturus 

be  silent 

terreo 

terrere 

terrui 

territus 

frighten 

valeo 

vale  re 

valul 

valiturus 

be  strong 

NOTE  i. 

—  The  following  lack  the 

Participial  Stem  :  — 

egeo 

egere 

egui 

want 

emineo 

eminere 

eminul 

stand  forth 

n—        — 

n  —     — 

•fl  ~~    ~ 

ij 

nor  eo 
horreo 

norere 
horrere 

norm 
horrui 



OiOO/H 

bristle 

lateo 

latere 

latui 



lurk 

niteo 

nitere 

nitui 



gleam 

oleo 

olere 

oluT 



smell 

palleo 

pallere 

pallui 



be  pale 

pateo 

pat  ere 

patul 



lie  open 

rubeo 

rube  re 

rubuT 



be  red 

sileo 

silere 

silui 



be  silent 

splendeo 

splendere 

splendui 



gleam 

studeo 

studere 

studui 

study 

stupeo 

stupere 

stupul 



be  amazed 

timeo 

timere 

timuT 



fear 

torpeo 

torpere 

torpuT 



be  dull 

vigeo 

vigere 

vigui 



flourish 

vireo 

virere 

viruT 



be  green 

and  others. 

List  of  the  Most  Important  Verbs. 


NOTE  2.  —  The  following  are  used  only 

in  the  Present  System  :  — 

aveo                  avere 





wish 

frigeo                frigere 





be  cold 

immineo           imminere 





overhang 

maereo              maerere 





mourn 

polleo                pollere 





be  strong 

and  others. 

b.  Type  -eo,  -ere,  -ui,  -tus  (-sus)  . 

censeo              censere 

censui 

census 

estimate 

doceo                docere 

docuT 

doctus 

teach 

misceo               miscere 

miscui 

mlxtus 

mix 

teneo                 tenere 

tenui 



hold 

So  confined  and  sustineo  ; 

but  — 

retineo          retinere 

retinui 

retentus 

retain 

obtineo         obtinere 

obtinuf 

obtentus 

maintain 

torreo                torrere  , 

torrui 

tostus 

bake 

III.   PERFECT  IN  -SI. 

augeo                 augere 

auxi 

auctus 

increase 

torqueo              torquere 

torsi 

tortus 

twist 

indulgeo             indulgere 

indulsi 



indulge 

luceo                  lucere 

lux! 



be  light 

lugeo                  lugere 

luxl 



mourn 

jubeo                 jubere 

jussi 

jussus 

order 

per-mulceo         permulcere 

permulsi 

permulsus 

soothe 

rideo                   ride  re 

risT 

rlsum  (est) 

laugh 

suadeo                suadere 

suasi 

suasum  (est) 

advise 

abs-tergeo         abstergere 

abstersT 

abstersus 

wipe  off 

ardeo                  ardere 

arsi 

arsurus 

burn 

haereo                haerere 

haesT 

haesurus 

stick 

maneo                manere 

mans! 

mansurus 

stay 

algeo                  algere 

alsi 

be  cold 

fulgeo                 fulgere 

fulsi 



gleam 

urge5                  urgere 

ursi 



press 

IV.    PERFECT  IN  -I  WITH  REDUPLICATION. 

mordeo               mordere 

momordi 

morsus 

bite 

spondeo              spondere 

spopondl 

sponsus 

promise 

tondeo                tondere 

totondi 

tonsus 

shear 

pendeo                pendere 

pependT 



hang 

86 


Inflections. 


V.    PERFECT  IN  -I  WITH  LENGTHENING  OF  STEM  VOWEL. 

cauturus  take  care 

fauturus  favor 

fbtus  cherish 

motus  move 

fear 
sit 


caveo 

cave  re 

cavi 

faveo 

favere 

favl 

foveo 

fovere 

fovi 

moveo 

movere 

movi 

paveo 
sedeo 

pavere 
sedere 

pavl 
sedi 

video 

videre 

vidi 

voveo 

vovere 

VOVl 

sessurus 

visus 

votus 


see 
vow 


VI .   PERFECT  IN  -I  WITHOUT  EITHER  REDUPLICATION  OR  LENGTH- 
ENING OF  STEM  VOWEL. 

ferveo  fervere  fervi  (ferbui)    boil 

prandeo          prandere        prandi              pransus  (§  1 14,  2)       lunch 
strideo  stridere          stridi  creak 


VII.    DEPONENTS. 

liceor  licerl 

polliceor  polliceri 

mereor  merer! 

misereor  misereri 

vereor  vereri 

fateor  fateri 

confiteor  confiteri 

reor  reri 

medeor  mederi 

tueor  tueri 


licitus  sum 
pollicitus  sum 
meritus  sum 
miseritus  sum 
veritus  sum 
fassus  sum 
confessus  sum 
ratus  sum 


bid 

promise 

earn 

pity 

fear 

confess 

confess 

think 

heal 

protect 


Third  (Consonant)  Conjugation. 

122.   I.   VERBS  WITH  PRESENT  STEM  ENDING  IN  A  CONSONANT. 

i .    Perfect  in  -si. 

a.    Type  -6,  -Sre,  -si,  -tus. 


carpo 

sculpo 

repo 

serpo 

scribo 

nubo 

rego 


carpere 

sculpere 

repere 

serpere 

scribere 

nubere 

regere 


carps! 

sculps! 

reps! 

serps! 

scrips! 

mips! 

rex! 


carptus 
sculptus 


scnptus 

nupta  (woman  only) 

rectus 


pluck 

chisel 

creep 

crawl 

write 

marry 

govern 


List  of  the  Most  Important  Verbs. 

87 

tego 

tegere 

texi 

tectus 

cover 

af-fllgo 

affllgere 

afflixT 

afflictus 

shatter 

dlco 

dicere 

dixT 

dictus 

say 

duco 

ducere 

duxi 

ductus 

lead 

coquo 

coquere 

coxl 

coctus 

cook 

traho 

trahere 

traxi 

tractus 

draw 

veho 

vehere 

vexi 

vectus 

carry 

cingo 

cingere 

cinxT 

cinctus 

gird 

tingo 

tingere 

tinxT 

tmctus 

dip 

jungo 

jungere 

junxi 

jQnctus 

join 

fingo 

fingere 

finxi 

f!ctus 

mould 

pingo 

pingere 

pinxT 

p!ctus 

paint 

stringo 

stringere 

strinxT 

strictus 

bind 

-stinguo  l 

-stinguere 

-stinxi 

-stinctus 

blot  out 

unguo 

unguere 

unxi 

unctus 

anoint 

vivo 

vivere 

V1X1 

v!ctum  (est) 

live 

gero 

gerere 

gessl 

gestus 

carry 

uro 

urere 

USSl 

ustus 

burn 

temno 

temnere 

con-tempsi 

con-temptus 

despise 

b.   Type 

-6,  -Sre,  -si,  -sus. 

flgo 

flgere 

fix! 

f!xus 

fasten 

mergo 

mergere 

mersT 

mersus 

sink 

spargo 

spargere 

spars! 

sparsus 

scatter 

flecto 

flectere 

flexi 

flexus 

bend 

necto 

nectere 

nexul  (nexi) 

nexus 

twine 

mitto 

mittere 

mis! 

m!ssus 

send 

rado 

radere 

rasT 

rasus 

shave 

rodo 

rodere 

rosT 

rosus 

gnaw 

vado 

vadere 

-vasi  2 

-vasum  (est)2 

march,  walk 

ludo 

ludere 

lusi 

lusum  (est) 

play 

trudo 

trudere 

trusi 

trusus 

push 

laedo 

laedere 

laesl 

laesus 

injure*  hurt 

claudo 

claudere 

clausi 

clausus 

close 

plaudo 

plaudere 

plausi 

plausum  (est) 

clap 

explode 

explodere 

explosi 

explosus 

hoot  off 

cedo 

cedere 

cess! 

cessum  (est) 

withdraw 

divido 

dividere 

divisi 

d!v!sus 

divide 

premo 

premere 

press! 

pressus 

press 

1  Fully  conjugated  only  in 

the  compounds  : 

:  exstinguo,  restinguo,  dlstinguo. 

2  Only  in 

the  compounds  : 

evado,  in  vado,  per  vado. 

88 


Inflections. 


2.    Perfect  in  -i  with  Reduplication. 

ab-do  abdere  abdidi 

red-d5  red-dere  reddidi 

So  addo,  condo,  dedo,  per  do,  pro  do, 


abditus 

redditus 

trddo,  etc. 


conceal 
return 

take  one^s  stand 
resist 
surround 
fall 
kill 

weigh,  pay 
stretch 
beat 

)  deceive 
drive  out 
run 
spare 
sing 
touch 
prick 

NOTE. —  In  the  following  verbs  the  perfects  were  originally  redupli- 
cated, but  have  lost  the  reduplicating  syllable :  — 
per-cello         percellere         perculi          perculsus  strike  down 

fmdo  findere  fidi  fissus  split' 

scindd  scindere  scidi  scissus  tear  apart 

tollo  tollere  sus-tuli          sublatus  remove 

3.    Perfect  in  -I  with  Lengthening  of  Stem-Vowel. 


con-sisto 

consistere 

constiti 



resisto 

resistere 

restiti 



circumsisto 

circumsistere 

circumstetT 



cado 

cadere 

cecidi 

casurus 

caedo 

caedere 

cecidi 

caesus 

pendo 
tendo 

pendere 
tendere 

pependT 
tetendi 

pensus 
tentus 

tundo 
fallo 
pello 
curro 

tundere 
fallere 
pellere 
currere 

tutudi 
fefelli 
pepuli 
cucurri 

tusus,  tunsus 
(falsus,  as  Adj. 
pulsus 
cursum  (est) 

parco 

parcere 

peperci 

parsurus 

cano 

canere 

cecim 



tango 

tangere 

tetigi 

tactus 

pungo 

pungere 

pupugi 

punctus 

ago                  agere 

egl 

actus 

drive,  do 

perago       peragere 

peregi 

peractus 

finish 

subigo        subigere 

subegi 

subactus 

subdue 

cogo           cogere 

coegl 

coactus 

force,  gather 

frango             frangere 

fregT 

fractus 

break 

perfringo   perfringere 

perfregi 

perfractus 

break  down 

lego                legere 

legl 

lectus 

gather,  read 

perl  ego      perlegere 

perlegi 

perlectus 

read  through 

colligo        colligere 

collegi 

collectus 

collect 

deligo        deligere 

delegT 

delectus 

choose 

dlligo         diligere 

dilexl 

dilectus 

love 

intellego    intellegere 

intellexi 

intellectus 

understand 

neglego      neglegere 

neglexi 

neglectus 

neglect 

List  of  the  Most  Important  Verbs. 


emo 

emere 

eml 

emptus 

buy 

coemo 

coemere 

coemi 

coemptus 

buy  up 

redimo 

redimere 

redemT 

redemptus 

buy  back 

dirimo 

dirimere 

diremi 

diremptus 

destroy 

demo 

demere 

dempsl 

demptus 

take  away 

sumo 

sumere 

sumpsl 

sumptus 

take 

promo 

promere 

prompsi 

(promptus,  as  Adj.)    take  out 

vinco 

vincere 

V1C1 

v!ctus     / 

conquer 

re-linquo 

relinquere 

rellqui 

rel!ctus 

leave 

rumpo 

rumpere 

rupl 

ruptus 

break 

edo 

edere 

edT 

esus 

eat 

fundo 

fundere 

fudi 

fusus 

pour 

4.    Perfect   in  -I  without   either 

Reduplication  or 

Lengthening  of 

Stem-Vowel, 

excudo 

excudere 

excudl 

excusus 

hammer 

{  take  one'1  s 

consido 

considere 

consedi 



\      seat 

possldo 

possldere 

possedi 

possessus 

f  take  posses- 
\      sion 

accendo 

accendere 

accendi 

accensus 

kindle 

a-scendo 

ascendere 

ascend! 

ascensum  (est) 

climb 

de-fendo 

defendere 

defend! 

defensus 

defend 

pre-hendo 

prehendere 

prehend! 

prehensus 

seize 

!co 

Tcere 

!c! 

ictus 

strike 

vello 

vellere 

veil! 

vulsus 

pluck 

verto 

vertere 

vert! 

versus 

turn 

pando 

pandere 

pand! 

passus 

spread 

solvo 

solvere 

solv! 

solutus 

loose 

viso 

visere 

v!s! 

v!sus 

visit 

volvo 

volvere 

volv! 

volutus 

roll 

verro 

verrere 

verr! 

versus 

sweep 

5.    Perfect  in  -ui. 

in-cumbo 

incumbere 

incubu! 

incubiturus 

lean  on 

gTgno 

glgnere 

genu! 

genitus 

bring  forth 

molo 

molere 

molu! 

molitus 

grind 

vomo 

vomere 

vomu! 

vomitus 

vomit 

fremo 

f  re  mere 

fremu! 



snort 

gemo 

gemere 

gemu! 



sigh 

meto 

metere 

messu! 

messus 

reap 

Inflections. 


tremo 

tremere 

tremui 



tremble 

strepo 

strepere 

strepui 



rattle 

alo 

alere 

alui 

alitus  (altus) 

nourish 

colo 

colere 

colui 

cultus 

cultivate 

incolo 

incolere 

incolui 



inhabit 

excolo 

excolere 

excolui 

excultus 

perfect 

consulo 

consulere 

consuluT 

consultus 

consult 

consero 

conserere 

conseruT 

consertus 

join 

desero 

deserere 

deserui 

desertus 

desert 

dissero 

disserere 

disserui 



discourse 

texo 

texere 

texui 

textus 

weave 

6.   Perfect 

in  -vi. 

sino 

sinere 

S1V1 

situs 

allow 

desino 

desinere 

desii 

desitus 

cease 

pono 

ponere 

posui 

positus 

place 

ob-lino 

oblinere 

oblevi 

oblitus 

smear 

sero 

serere 

sevi 

satus 

sow 

consero 

conserere 

consevi 

consitus 

plant 

cerno 

cernere 





separate 

discerno 

discernere 

discrevi 

discretus 

distinguish 

decerno 

decernere 

decrevi 

decretus 

decide 

sperno 

spernere 

sprevi 

spretus 

scorn 

sterno 

sternere 

stravl 

stratus 

spread 

pro-sterno 

prosternere 

prostravl 

prostratus 

overthrow 

peto 

petere 

petivT  (petii) 

petitus 

seek 

appeto 

appetere 

appetlvT 

appetitus 

long  for 

tero 

terere 

trivi 

tntus 

rub 

quaero 

quaerere 

quaesivi 

quaesltus 

seek 

acquire 

acquirere 

acquisivi 

acquisitus 

acquire 

arcesso 

arcessere 

arcessivi 

arcessltus 

summon 

capesso 

capessere 

capessivi 

capessltus 

seize 

lacesso 

lacessere 

lacessivi 

lacessitus 

provoke 

7.    Used  only  in  Present 

System. 

ango 

angere 



choke 

lambo 

lambere 





lick 

claudo 

claudere 





be  lame 

furo 

furere 

• 



rave 

vergo 

vergere 

bend 

and  a  few  others. 


List  of  the  Most  Important  Verbs. 


II.   VERBS  WITH  PRESENT  STEM  ENDING  IN  -U. 

induo 

induere 

indui 

indutus 

put  on 

imbuo 

imbuere 

imbul 

imbutus 

moisten 

luo 

lucre 

luT 



wash 

polluo 

polluere 

polluT 

pollutus 

defile 

minuo 

minuere 

minui 

minutus 

lessen 

statuo 

statuere 

statuT 

statutus 

set  up 

constituo 

constituere 

constitui 

constitutus 

determine 

suo 

suere 

sul 

sutus 

sew 

tribuo 

tribuere 

tribui 

tributus 

allot 

ruo 

ruere 

rui 

ruiturus 

fall 

diruo 

diruere 

dirul 

dlrutus 

destroy 

obruo 

obruere 

obrui 

obrutus 

overwhelm 

acuo 

acuere 

acuT 



sharpen 

arguo 

arguere 

argul 



accuse 

congruo 

congruere 

congruT 



agree 

metuo 

metuere 

metul 



fear 

ab-nuo 

abnuere 

abnul 



decline 

re-spuo 

respuere 

respui 



reject 

struo 

struere 

strQxi 

structus 

build 

fluo 

fluere 

fluxl 

(fluxus,  as  Adj.) 

flow 

III.   VERBS 

WITH  PRESENT  STEM 

ENDING   IN   -I. 

cupio 

cupere 

cuplvi 

cupltus 

wish 

sapio 

sapere 

saplvi 



taste 

rapio 

rapere 

rapui 

raptus 

snatch 

dlripio 

dlripere 

diripul 

direptus 

plunder 

conspicio 

conspicere 

conspexi 

conspectus 

gaze  at 

aspicio 

aspicere 

aspexl 

aspectus 

behold 

illicio 

illicere 

illexji 

illectus 

allure 

pellicio 

pellicere 

pellexl 

pellectus 

allure 

elicio 

elicere 

elicui 

elicitus 

elicit 

quatio 

quatere 

quassus 

shake 

concutio 

concutere 

concuss! 

concussus 

shake 

pario 

parere 

peperi 

partus 

bring  forth 

capio 

capere 

ceo! 

captus 

take 

accipio 

accipere 

accepi 

acceptus 

accept 

incipio 

incipere 

incepi 

inceptus 

begin 

facio 

facere 

feel 

factus 

make 

afficio 

afficere 

affeci 

affectus 

affect 

Passive,  afficior,  afficl,  affectus  sum. 


92 


Inflections. 


So   other  prepositional   compounds,  perficid,  perficior ;    interficid,  interficior ; 
etc.     But  — 

assuefacio          assuefacere  assuefeci       assuefactus          accustom 

Passive  assuefio,  assuefieri,  assuefactus  sum. 

So  also  patefaci 'd,  pate  fid;  c  ale f acid,  c  ale  fid;  and  all  non-prepositional  compounds. 

jacio  jacere  jeci  jactus  hurl 

abicio  abicere  abjecl  abjectus  throw  away 

fodio  fodere  fodi  fossus  dig 

fugio  fugere  fugi  fugiturus  flee 

effugio  effugere  effugi  escape 


IV.   VERBS  IN  -SCO. 
i.   Verbs  in  -sco  from  Simple  Roots. 


posco 

poscere 

poposcT 



demand 

J*       - 

discere 

didicl 

7 

U1SCU 

pasco 

pascere 

pavl 

pastus 

feed 

pascor 

pasci 

pastus  sum 

graze 

cresco 

crescere 

crevi 

cretus 

grow 

consuesco 

consuescere 

consuevi 

consuetus 

accustom  one^s  self 

quiesco 

quiescere 

quievi 

quieturus 

be  still 

adolesco 

adolescere 

adolevT 



grow  up 

obsolesco 

obsolescere 

obsolevi 



grow  old. 

nosco 

noscere 

novi 



\  become  acquainted 
\      with 

Ignosco 

Tgnoscere 

IgnovT 

Ignoturus 

pardon 

agnosco 

agnoscere 

agnovT 

agnitus 

recognize 

cognosco 

cognoscere 

cognovT 

cognitus 

j  get  acquainted' 
[       with 

2.    Verbs  in  -sco  formed  from  other  Verbs. 

These  usually  have  Inchoative  or  Inceptive  meaning  (see  §  155.  i)-. 
When  they  have  the  Perfect,  it  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Verbs  from 
which  they  are  derived. 


floresco 
sclsco 
aresco 
calesco 
c5nsenesco 
extimesco 
ingemisco 
adhaeresco 

florescere 
sciscere 
arescere 
calescere 
consenescere 
extimescere 
ingemlscere 
adhaerescere 

florui 

SC1V1 

ami 
calui 
consenui 
extimuT 
ingemui 
adhaesi 

begin  to  bloom 
enact 
become  dry 
become  hot 
grow  old 
fear  greatly 
sigh 
stick 

(rloreo) 
(scio) 
(areo) 
(caleo) 
(•seneo) 
(timeo) 
(gemo) 
(haereo) 

List  of  the  Most  Important  Verbs. 


93 


3.    Verbs 

in  -sco   derived   from   Nouns,  usually 

with    Inchoative 

meaning. 

obduresco 

obdurescere 

obdurui       grow  hard 

(durus) 

evanesce 

evanescere 

evanui         disappear 

(vanus) 

percrebresco 

percrebrescere 

percrebruT  grow  fresh 

(creber) 

maturesco 

maturescere 

maturui       grow  ripe 

(maturus) 

obmutesco 

obmutescere 

obmutui      grow  dumb 

(mutus) 

V.   DEPONENTS. 

fungor 

fungi 

functus  sum 

perform 

queror 

queri 

questus  sum 

complain 

loquor 

loqui 

locutus  sum 

speak 

sequor 

sequi 

secutus  sum 

follow 

fruor 

frul 

fruiturus 

enjoy 

perfruor 

perfruT 

perfructus  sum 

thoroughly  enjoy 

labor 

labi 

lapsus  sum 

glide 

amplector 

amplecti 

amplexus  sum 

embrace 

nltor 

niti 

nlsus  sum,  mxus  sum 

strive 

gradior 

gradl 

gressus  sum 

walk 

patior 

patl 

passus^sum 

suffer 

perpetior 

perpeti 

perpessus  sum 

endure 

utor 

utl 

usus  sum 

use 

morior 

mori 

mortuus  sum 

die 

adiplscor 

adipiscT 

adeptus  sum 

acquire 

comminlscor 

commimscT 

commentus  sum 

invent 

remimscor 

remimsci 



remember 

nanclscor 

nanclscl 

nanctus  (nactus)  sum 

acquire 

nascor 

nascl 

natus  sum 

be  born 

obliviscor 

oblTvisci 

oblltus  sum 

forget 

pads  cor 

pacTsci 

pactus  sum 

covenant 

proficiscor 

proficlscl 

profectus  sum 

set  out 

ulciscor 

ulclsci 

ultus  sum 

avenge 

Trascor 

Trasci 

(Iratus,  as  Adj.) 

be  angry 

vescor 

vesci 



eat 

Fourth  Conjugation. 

123.   I.   PERFECT  ENDS  IN  -VI. 
audio  audlre  audivi        auditus  hear 

So  all  regular  Verbs  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation, 
sepelio  sepellre  sepelivl      sepultus  bury 


94  Inflections. 

II.  PERFECT  ENDS  IN  -UI. 

aperio  aperlre  aperul  apertus  open 

operio  operire  operui  opertus  cover 

salio  sallre  salui  leap 

III.  PERFECT  ENDS  IN  -SI. 


saepio 

saepire 

saepsi 

saeptus 

hedge  in 

sancio 

sancire 

sanxi 

sanctus 

ratify 

vincio 

vincire 

vinxi 

vinctus 

bind 

amicio 

amicire 



amictus 

envelope 

fulcio 

fulcire 

fulsi 

fultus 

prop  up 

refercio 

refercire 

refers! 

refertus 

fin 

sarcio 

sarcire 

sarsi 

sartus 

patch 

haurio 

haurire 

hausi 

haustus 

draw 

sentio 

sentire 

sens! 

sensus 

feel 

IV.  PERFECT  IN  -I  WITH  LENGTHENING  OF  STEM  VOWEL. 

venio  venire  veni  ventum  (est)  come 

advenio        advenire  advem  adventum  (est)  arrive 

invenio         invenire  inveni  inventus  find 

\ 

V.  PERFECT  WITH  Loss  OF  REDUPLICATION. 

reperio  reperire  repperl  repertus  find 

comperio  comperire          comperi         compertus  learn 

VI.  USED   ONLY   IN   THE   PRESENT. 

ferio  ferire  strike 

esurio  esurire  be  hungry 

VII.  DEPONENTS. 

largior  largiri  largitus  sum  bestow 

So  many  others. 

experior  experiri  expertus  sum  try 

opperior  opperiri  oppertus  sum  await 

ordior  ordiri  orsus  sum  begin 

orior  orlri  ortus  sum  arise 

Orior  also  admits  forms  of  the  Third  Conjugation  ;  as,  oreris,  orttur, 
orimur ;  orerer  (Imp.  Subj.);  orere  (Imper.). 

metior  metlri  mensus  sum  measure 

assentior  assentiri  assensus  sum  assent 


Irregular  Verbs.  95 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 

124.  A  number  of  Verbs  are  called  Irregular.    The  most 
important  are  sum,  do,  edo,  fero,  volo,  nolo,  malo,  eo,  flo. 
The  peculiarity  of  these  Verbs  is  that  they  append  the 
personal    endings   in    many  forms    directly  to   the    stem, 
instead    of   employing   a   connecting   vowel,   as   fer-s  (2d 
Sing,  of  fer-6)  instead  of  fer-is.     They  are  but  the  relics 
of  what  was  once  in  Latin  a  large  class  of  Verbs. 

125.  The  Inflection  of  sum  has  already  been  given.     Its  various 
compounds  are  inflected  in  the  same  way.     They  are  — 

absum  abesse  aful  am  absent 

Pres.  Partic.  absens  (absentis),  absent. 

adsum  adesse  adfuT  am  present 

desum  deesse  deful  am  lacking 

insum  inesse  infui  am  in 

intersum  interesse  interful  am  among 

praesum  praeesse  praeful  am  in  charge  of 

Pres.  Partic.  praesens  (praesentis)  present. 
obsum  obesse  obfuT  hinder 

prosum  prodesse  profui  am  of  advantage 

subsum  subesse  subfuT  am  at  the  basis  of 

supersum  superesse  superfui  am  left 

NOTE.  —  Prosum  is  compounded  of  prod  (earlier  form  of  pro)  and  sum ; 
the  d  disappears  before  consonants,  as  prosumus,  but  prodestis. 

126.  Possum.     In  its  Present  System  possum  is  a  compound  of 
pot-  (for  pote,  able)  and  sum ;  potui  is  from  an  obsolete  potere. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

possum,  posse,  potui,  to  be  able. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Pres.      possum,  potes,  potest ;  possumus,  potestis,  possunt. 

Imp.       poteram :  poteramus. 

Fut.       potero ;  poterimus. 

Perf.      potui ;  potuimus. 

Plup.      potueram;  potueramus. 

Fut.  P.  potuero  ;  potuerimus. 


Inflections. 
SUBJUNCTIVE. 


SINGULAR. 

Pres.  possim,  possis,  possit ; 

Imp.  possem ; 

Perf.  potuerim ; 

Plup.  potuissem ; 

INFINITIVE. 
Pres.      posse. 
Perf.      potuisse. 


PLURAL. 

posslmus,  possitis,  possint. 

possemus. 

potuerimus. 

potuissemus. 


PARTICIPLE. 
Pres.     potens  (as  an  adjective), 


127. 


do, 


Do,  I  give. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

dSre,  dedi, 


d&tus. 


Pres. 
Imp. 
Fut. 
Perf. 
Plup. 


Active  Voice. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

do,  das,  dat ;  damus,  datis,  dant. 

dabam,  etc. ;  dabamus. 

dabo,  etc. ;  dabimus. 

dedi ;  dedimus. 

dederam ;  dederamus. 


Fut.  P.  dedero ; 


Pres.  dem ; 

Imp.  darem ; 

Perf.  dederim ; 

Plup.  dedissem ; 

Pres.      da ; 
Fut.        dato ; 
dato; 

INFINITIVE. 
Pres.      dare. 
Perf.      dedisse. 
Fut.       datum s  esse. 

GERUND. 
dandl,  etc. 


dederimus. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

demus. 
daremus. 
dederimus. 
dedissemus. 


IMPERATIVE. 

date. 

datote. 

danto. 


PARTICIPLE, 
dans. 

daturus. 

SUPINE. 

datum,  datu. 


Irregular  Verbs.  97 

1.  The  Passive  is  inflected  regularly  with  the  short  vowel.     Thus: 
dari,  datur,  dabatur,  daretur,  etc. 

2.  The  archaic  and  poetic  forms  duim,  duint,  interduo,  perduint, 
etc.,  are  not  from  the  root  da-,  but  from  du-,  a  collateral  root  of  simi- 
lar meaning. 

128.    Ed5,  I  eat.     This  verb,  in  addition  to  its  regular  inflection, 
sometimes  has  duplicate  forms  in  certain  tenses  of  the  Present  System. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

edo.  edere,  edi,  esus. 

Active  Voice. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
Pres.    edo  edimus 

edis,  es  editis,  estis 

edit,  est  edunt 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Imp.    ederem,  essem  ederemus,  essemus 

ederes,  esses  ederetis,  essetis 

ederet,  esset  ederent,  essent 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.    ede,  es  edite,  este 

Put.     edito,  esto  editote,  estote 

edito,  esto  edunto 

INFINITIVE. 
Pres.  edere,  esse 

Passive  Voice. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
Pres.  T)d  Sing,   editur,  estur 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Imp.  3d  Sing,    ederetur,  essetur 

1.  Observe  the  long  vowel  of  the  abbreviated  forms,  which  alone 
distinguishes  them  from  the  corresponding  forms  of  esse,  to  be. 

2.  Note  comedo,  comedere,  comedi,  comesus   or  comestus, 
consume. 

H 


98 


Inflections. 


129. 


fer5, 


Fero,  / bear. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

ferre,  tull, 

Active  Voice. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


SINGULAR. 

Pres.      fero,  fers,  fert ; 
Imp.      ferebam ; 
Fut.       feram ; 
Perf.      tuli ; 
Plup.      tuleram ; 
Fut.  P.  tulero ; 


latus. 


PLURAL. 

ferimus,  fertis,  ferunt.1 

ferebamus. 

feremus. 

tulimus. 

tuleramus. 

tulerimus. 


Pres.  feram ; 

Imp.  ferrem ; 

Perf.  tulerim ; 

Plup.  tulissem ; 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


feramus. 
ferre  mus. 
tulerimus. 
tulissemus. 


Pres.      fer ; 
Fut.        ferto ; 
ferto ; 


IMPERATIVE. 


ferte. 

fertote. 

ferunto. 


INFINITIVE. 
Pres.      ferre. 
Perf.      tulisse. 
Fut.       laturus  esse. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.     ferens. 

Fut.      laturus. 


GERUND. 

Gen.       ferendl. 
Dat.       ferendo. 
Ace.        ferendum. 
Abl.        ferendo. 


SUPINE. 


Ace.     latum. 
Abl.     latu. 


1  It  will  be  observed  that  not  all  the  forms  of  feiro  lack  the  connecting  vowel. 
Some  of  them,  as  ferimus,  ferunt,  follow  the  regular  inflection  of  verbs  of  the 
Third  Conjugation. 


Irregular  Verbs. 


99 


feror, 


Passive  Voice, 
ferri,  latus  sum, 


to  be  borne. 


INDICATIVE 

MOOD. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pres.      feror,  ferris,  fertur  ; 

ferimur,  ferimin!, 

feruntur. 

Imp.       fere  bar  ; 

ferebamur. 

Put.       ferar  ; 

feremur. 

Perf.      latus  sum  ; 

lati  sumus. 

Plup.      latus  eram  ; 

lati  eramus. 

Put.  P.  latus  ero  ; 

lati  erimus. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Pres.  ferar ; 

Imp.  ferrer ; 

Perf.  latus  sim ; 

Plup.  latus  essem ; 


Pres.      ferre ; 
Put.       fertor ; 
fertor ; 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.      fern. 
Perf.      latus  esse. 
Pitt.       latum  iri. 


feramur. 
ferremur. 
lati  slmus. 
lati  essemus. 


IMPERATIVE. 


ferimim. 

feruntor. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Perf.    latus. 
Ger.     ferendus. 


So  also  the  Compounds  — 


-affero 

afferre 

attuli 

allatus 

bring  toward 

aufero 

auferre 

abstulf 

ablatus 

take  away 

,confer6 

conferre 

contuli 

collatus 

compare 

differo 

differre 

distulT 

dllatus 

put  off 

effero 

efferre 

extuli 

elatus 

carry  off 

Tnfero 

inferre 

intuli 

Hiatus 

bring  against 

affero 

offerre 

obtulT 

oblatus 

present 

.  refero 

referre 

rettuli 

relatus 

bring  back 

NOTE.  —  The  forms  sustuli  and  sublatus  belong  to  tollo. 


TOO 


Inflections. 


130. 


Volo,  nolo,  maid. 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

volo,  velle,  volui,  to  be  willing. 

iiolo,  nolle,  nolui,  to  be  unwilling. 

maid,  malle,  malui,  to  prefer. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Pres. 

volo, 

nolo. 

malo, 

vis, 

non  vis, 

mavis, 

vult; 

non  vult  ; 

mavult  ; 

volumus, 

nolumus, 

malumus, 

vultis, 

non  vultis, 

mavultis, 

volunt. 

nolunt. 

malunt. 

Imp. 

volebam. 

nolebam. 

malebam. 

Put. 

volam. 

nolam  . 

malam. 

Perf. 

volui. 

nolui. 

malui. 

Plup. 

volueram. 

nolueram. 

malueram. 

Put.  P. 

voluero. 

noluero. 

maluero. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres.  velim,  -Is,  -it,  etc.      nolim. 

Imp.  vellem,  -es,  -et,  etc.  nollem. 

Perf.  voluerim.  noluerim. 

Plup.  voluissem.  noluissem. 


malim. 
mallem. 
maluerim. 
maluissem. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.   noli,       nollte. 
Fut.     nolito,  nolltote, 
nolito ;  nolunto. 


Pres.      velle. 
Perf.      voluisse. 


INFINITIVE. 

nolle, 
noluisse. 


malle. 
maluisse. 


Pres.      volens. 


PARTICIPLE. 

nolens. 


Irregular  Vcsi'S.  101 

1  *  *    -> 

131.  Flo. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

fio.  fieri,  factus  sum,  to  become,  be  made. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Pres.      fio,  fis,  fit ;  flmus,  fltis,  flunt. 

Imp.       fiebam ;  fiebamus. 

Fut.       flam;  fiemus. 

Perf.      factus  sum ;  fact!  sumus. 

Plup.      factus  eram ;  fact!  eramus. 

Fut.  P.  factus  ero  ;  fact!  erimus. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres.      flam ;  fiamus. 

Imp.       fierem ;  fieremus. 

Perf.      factus  sim  ;  fact!  slmus. 

Plup.      factus  essem ;  fact!  essemus. 

,,\:°ERATIVE. 
Pres.      fl ;  ftte. 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.       fieri. 

Perf.      factus  esse.  Perf.  factus. 

Fut.       factum  In.  Ger.  faciendus. 

NOTE.  —  A  few  isolated  forms   of  compounds  of  fio  occur ;   as, 
defit,  lacks ;  infit,  begins. 

132.  Eo. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

eo,  ire,  ivi,  itum  (est),  to  go. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Pres.      e5,  Is,  it ;  Imus,  Itis,  eunt. 

Imp.      Ibam ;  ibamus. 

Fut.       Ibo ;  Ibimus. 

Perf.      ivi;  ivimus. 

Plup.      Iveram ;  iveramus. 

Fut.  P.  ivero  ;  Iverimus. 


IO2  Inflections. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Pres.  earn ;  eamus. 

Imp.  irem ;  iremus. 

Perf.  Iverim ;  iverimus. 

Plup.  ivissem ;  ivissemus. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.      I ;  ite. 

Fut.       ito ;  itote, 

ito ;  eunto. 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.      Ire.  Pres.      iens. 
Perf.      ivisse.  {Gen.  euntis.) 

Put.       iturus  esse.  Fut.       iturus. 

GERUND.  SUPINE. 

eundi,  etc.  itum,  itu. 

i .    Transitive  compounds  of  eo  adm\f  Lne  full  Passive  inflection ; 
as,  adeor,  adiris,  aditur,  etc. 


DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 

Defective  Verbs  lack  certain  forms.     The  following  are 
the  most  important :  — 

133.    USED  MAINLY  IN  THE  PERFECT  SYSTEM. 
Coepi,  I  have  begun.  Memim,  I  remember.  Odi,  I  hate. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Perf.      coepi.  memim.  odi. 

Plup.      coeperam.  memineram.  oderam. 

Fut.  P.  coepero.  meminero.  odero. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Perf.      coeperim.  meminerim.  oderim. 

Plup.      coepissem.  meminissem.  odissem. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Sing,  memento;  Plur.  mementote. 


Defective  Verbs.  103 

INFINITIVE. 

Perf.     coepisse.  meminisse.  odisse. 

Fut.      coepturus  esse.  <  osurus  esse. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Perf.     coeptus,  begun.  osus. 

Fut.      coepturus.  osurus. 

1.  When  coepi  governs  a  Passive  Infinitive  it  usually  takes  the 
fonn  coeptus  est ;  as,  amari  coeptus  est,  he  began  to  be  loved. 

2.  Note  that  memini  and  odi,  though  Perfect  in  form,  are  Present 
in  sense.     Similarly  the  Pluperfect  and  Future  Perfect  have  the  force 
of  the  Imperfect  and  Future  ;  as,  memineram,  /  remembered',  odero, 
/  shall  hate. 

134.  Inquam,  /  say  (inserted  between  words  of  a  direct  quotation). 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Pres.     inquam, 

inquis, 

inquit ;  inquiunt. 

Fut.      

inquies, 

inquiet. 

Perf.  ^d  Sing,   inquit. 

135.  A  jo.  I  say. 
INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Pres.    ajo, 

ais, 

ait;  ajunt. 

Imp.     ajebam,  ajebamus, 

ajebas,  ajebatis, 

ajebat ;  ajebant. 

Perf.  $d  Sing.   ait. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres.  ^d  Sing.    ajat. 

NOTE.  —  For  aisne,  do  you  mean?  ain  is  common. 


. 
IO4  Inflections. 

136.  Fari,  to  speak. 

This  is  inflected  regularly  in  the  perfect  tenses.     In  the  Present 

System  it  has  — 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Pres. 

fatur. 
Put.  fabor, 

fabitur. 

Imp.  fare. 

Inf.  fan. 

Pres.  Parity  fantis,  fanti,  etc. 
Gerund,  £.,   fandi;  D.  and  AbL,  fando. 
Gerundive      fandus. 

NOTE.  —  Forms  of  fari  are  rare.    More  frequent  are  its  compounds ;  as, — 
af fatur,  he  addresses ;         •  praefamur,  we  say  in  advance. 

137.  OTHER  DEFECTIVE  FORMS. 

1.  Queo,  quire,  quivi,  to  be  able,  and  nequeS,  nequire,  nequivi, 
to  be  unable,  are  inflected  like  eo,  but  occur  chiefly  in  the  Present 
Tense,  and  there  only  in  special  forms. 

2.  Quaeso,  I  entreat ;  quaesumus,  we  entreat. 

3.  Cedo,  cette  ;  give  me,  tell  me. 

4.  Salve,  salvete,  hail.     Also  Infinitive,  salvere. 

5.  Have  (ave),  havete,  hail.     Also  Infinitive,  havere. 


IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

138.  Impersonal  Verbs  correspond  to  the  English,  it 
snows,  it  seems,  etc.  They  have  no  personal  subject,  but 
may  take  an  Infinitive,  a  Clause,  or  a  Neuter  Pronoun ; 
as,  me  pudet  hoc  fecisse,  lit.  it  shames  me  to  have  done  this  ; 
hoc  decet,  this  is  fitting.  Here  belong  — 

I.   Verbs  denoting  operations  of  the  weather;  as, — 

fulget  fulsit  it  lightens 

tonat  tonuit  it  thunders 


Impersonal  Verbs. 


105 


grandinat 

ningit 

pluit 


ninxit 
pluit 


it  hails 
it  snows 
it  rains 


II.    Special 

Verbs. 

paenitet 

paenitere 

paenituit 

it  repents 

piget 

pigere 

piguit 

it  grieves 

pudet 

pudere 

puduit 

it  causes  shame 

taedet 

taedere 

taeduit 

it  disgusts 

miseret 

miserere 

miseruit 

it  causes  pity 

libet 

libere 

libuit 

it  pleases 

licet 

licere 

licuit 

it  is  lawful 

oportet 

oportere 

oportuit 

it  is  fitting 

decet 

decere 

decuit 

it  is  becoming 

dedecet 

dedecere 

dedecuit  : 

it  is  unbecoming 

refert 

referre 

retulit 

it  concerns 

III.    Verbs 

Impersonal  only 

in  Special  Senses. 

constat 

constare 

constitit 

it  is  evident 

praestat 

praestare 

praestitit 

it  is  better 

juvat 

juvare 

juvit 

it  delights 

apparet 

apparere 

apparuit 

it  appears 

placet 

placere 

placuit  (placitum 

est)  it  pleases 

accedit 

accedere 

accessit 

it  is  added 

accidit 

accidere 

accidit 

it  happens 

contingit 

contingere 

contigit 

it  happens 

evenit 

evemre 

evenit 

it  turns  out 

interest 

interesse 

interfuit 

it  concerns 

IV.    The  Passive  of  Intransitive  Verbs ;  as,  — 


itur 

curritur 
ventum  est 
veniendum  est 
pugnari  potest 


lit.  it  is  gone  i.e. 

lit.  it  is  run  i.e. 

lit.  it  has  been  come  i.e 

lit.  it  must  be  come  i.e, 

lit.  //  can  be  fought  i.e, 


some  one  goes 
some  one  runs 
some  one  has  come 
somebody  must  come 
somebody  can  fight 


PART    III. 


PARTICLES. 


139.  Particles  are  the  four  Parts  of  Speech  that  do  not 
admit  of  inflection;  viz.  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunc- 
tions, Interjections. 


ADVERBS. 


140.  Most  adverbs  are  in  origin  case-forms  which  have 
become  stereotyped  by  usage.  The  common  adverbial 
terminations  have  already  been  given  above  (§  76).  The 
following  TABLE  OF  CORRELATIVES  is  important:  — 


RELATIVE  AND  INTERROGATIVE. 

ubi,  where ;  where  ? 
quo,  whither ;  whither  ? 


unde,  whence ;  whence  ? 


qua,  where ;  where  ? 


cum,  when. 
quandS,  when  f 
quotiens,  as  often  as  ; 

how  often  f 
quam,  as  much  as ;  how 

much  f 


DEMONSTRATIVE. 

hie,  here. 

ibi,  illic,  istic,  there. 

hue,  hither. 

eo,  istuc,  illuc, 

thither. 
hinc,  hence. 
inde,  istinc,  illinc, 

thence. 

hac,  by  this  way. 
ea,  istac,  iliac,   by 

that  way. 
nunc,  now. 
turn,  tune,  then. 
totiens,  so  often. 

tarn,  so  much. 
106 


INDEFINITE. 
alicubi,  usquam,  us- 

piam,  somewhere. 
aliquo,  to  some  place. 


alicunde,  from  some- 
where. 

aliqua,  by  some  way. 


aliquando,  umquam, 

sometime. 
aliquotiSns,   some 

number  of  times. 


Prepositions.  107 


PREPOSITIONS. 

141.  The   following   Prepositions   govern    the   Accusa- 
tive :  — 

ad  extra  prope 

ad  versus  (adversum)     Infra  propter 

ante  inter  secundum 

apud  intra  subter 

circa  juxta  super 

circiter  ob  supra 

circum  penes    '  trans 

cis  per  ultra 

citra  pone  versus 

contra  post 

1.  Usque  is  often  prefixed  to  ad,  in  the  sense  of  even;  as, — 

usque  ad  urbem,  even  to  the  city. 

2.  Versus  always  follows  its  case;  as, — 

Romam  versus,  toward  Rome. 

It  may  be  combined  with  a  preceding  Preposition ;  as,  — 
ad  urbem  versus,  toward  the  city. 

3.  Like  prope,  the  Comparatives  propior,  propius,  and  the  Super- 
latives proximus,  proxime,  sometimes  govern  the  Accusative ;  as,  — 

Ubii  proxime  Rheiium  incolunt,  the  Ubii  dwell  next  to  the  Rhine ; 
propius  castra  hostium,  nearer  the  camp  of  the  enemy. 

142.  The  following  Prepositions  govern  the  Ablative  :  — 

a,  ab,  abs  de  sine 

absque  e,  ex  tenus 

coram  prae 

cum  pro 

1.  A,  ab,  abs.     Before  vowels  or  h,  ab  must  be  used ;  before  con- 
sonants we  find  sometimes  a,  sometimes  ab  (the  latter  not  before  the 
labials  b,  p,  f,  v,  m  ;  nor  before  c,  g,  q,  or  t)  ;  abs  occurs  only  before 
te,  and  a  is  admissible  even  there. 

2.  E,  ex.     Before  vowels  or  h,  ex  must  be  used;    before  conso- 
nants, we  find  sometimes  e,  sometimes  ex. 


io8  Particles. 

3.  Terms  regularly  follows  its  case,  as  pectoribus  terms,  up  to  the 
breast.    It  sometimes  governs  the  Genitive,  as  labrorum  tenus,  as  far 
as  the  lips. 

4.  Cum  is  appended  to  the  Pronoun  of  the   First   and   Second 
Persons,  and  to  the  Reflexive  Pronoun ;  usually  also  to  the  Relative 
and  Interrogative.     Thus :  — 

mecum  secum 

tecum  quocum  or  cum  quo 

nobiscum  quacum  or  cum  qua 

vobiscum  quibuscum  or  cum  quibus 

On  qulcum,  see  §  89,  Footnote  i. 

143.  Two    Prepositions,  in    and   sub,   govern  both   the 
Accusative  and  the  Ablative.     With  the  Accusative  they 
denote  motion ;  with  the  Ablative,  rest ;  as,  — 

in  urbem,  into  the  city;  in  urbe,  in  the  city. 

i.    Subter  and  super  are  also  occasionally  construed  with  the 
Ablative. 

144.  RELATION  OF  ADVERBS  AND  PREPOSITIONS. 

1.  Prepositions  were  originally  Adverbs,  and  many  of  them  still 
retain  their  adverbial  meaning ;  as,  post,  afterwards;  ante,  previously; 
contra,  on  the  other  hand,  etc. 

2.  Conversely  several    words,   usually  adverbs,    are    occasionally 
employed  as  prepositions;  as, — 

clam,  pridie,  with  the  Accusative. 
procul,  simul,  palam,  with  the  Ablative. 

3.  Anastrophe.     A  dissyllabic  preposition  sometimes  follows  a 
relative  pronoun  which  it  governs  ;  as,  — 

il,  quos  inter  erat,  those  among  whom  he  was. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

145.  Interjections    are    Particles     expressing    emotion. 
They  may  express  — 

1 .  Surprise ;  as,  Sn,  ecce,  6. 

2.  Joy;  as,  io,  euoe. 

3.  Sorrow  and  Pain  ;  as,  heu,  Sheu,  vae,  pro. 

4.  Calling ;  as,  heus,  eho. 


PART   IV. 


WORD-FORMATION. 


I.    DERIVATIVES. 

146.  Derivatives  are  formed  by  appending  certain  ter- 
minations called  Suffixes   to   stems   of   verbs,    nouns,  or 
adjectives. 

A.  NOUNS. 
1.   Nouns  derived  from  Verbs. 

147.  i.   The  suffix  -tor  (-sor),  Fern,  -trix,  denotes  the  agent ;  as, — 
victor,  victrix,  victor;  defensor,  defender. 

NOTE.  —  The  suffix  -tor  is  occasionally  appended  to  noun  stems  ;  as, — 
gladiator,  gladiator  (from  gladius). 

2.  The  suffix  -or  (originally  -6s)  denotes  an  activity  or  a  condi- 
tion; as, — 

amor,  love ;  timor,  fear ;  dolor,  pain. 

3.  The  suffixes  -tio  (-sio),  Gen.  -orris,  and  -tus  (-sus),  Gen.  -us, 
denote  an  action  as  in  process;  as, — 

venatiS,   hunting;   obsessio,   blockade;   gemitus,  sighing;   cursus, 
running. 

NOTE.  —  Rarer  endings  with  the  same  force  are :  — 

a)  -tura,  -sura ;  as,  — 

sepultura,  burial;  mensura,  measuring. 

b)  -ium;  as, — 

g-audium,  rejoicing, 
c}   -Ido,  as,— 

cupldo,  desire. 

109 


1 10  Word- Formation. 

4.    The  suffixes  -men,  -meiitum,  -crum,  -trum,  -bulum,  -culum, 
denote  the  means  or  place  of  an  action  ;  as,  — 

lumen  (luc-s-men),  light]  vocabulum,  word] 

ornamentum,  ornament]  documentum,  proof] 

sepulcrum,  grave.  aratrum,  plough ; 

vehiculum,  carriage. 

When  the  root  ends  in  c,  the  c  of  the  suffix  disappears ;  as, — 
jaculum  for  jac-culum  (from  jacio). 

2.   Nouns  derived  from  Nouns. 
148.     I.    Diminutives  end  in  — 

-ulus,  (-ula,  -ulum) 

-olus,  (-ola,  -olum),  after  a  vowel 

-culus,  (-cula,          -culum) 

-ellus,  (-ella,  -ellum) 

-illus,  (-ilia,  -ilium) 

as,— 

mdulus,  little  nest  (nidus) ; 

virgula,  wand  (virga) ; 

oppidulum,           little  town  (oppidum)  ; 

filiolus,  little  son  (filius) ; 

opusculum,          little  work          (opus) ; 
tabella,  tablet  (tabula) ; 

lapillus,  pebble  (lapis). 

NOTE  i.  —  It  will  be  observed  that  in  gender  the  Diminutives  follow  the  gender 
of  the  words  from  which  they  are  derived. 

NOTE  2.  —  The  endings  -ellus,  -illus  contain  the  primitive  form  of  the  diminu- 
tive suffix,  viz.,  -lo-.     Thus  :  — 

ag-ellus,  field,        for     ag-er-lus ; 
lapillus,  pebble,     for     lapid-lus. 

2.  The  suffix  -ium  appended  to  nouns  denoting  persons  designates 
either  a  collection  of  such  persons  or  their  function ;  as,  — 

collegium,  a  corporation,  body  of  colleagues  (collega)  ; 
sacerdotium,  priestly  function  (sacerdos). 

3.  The    suffixes    -Srium,   -etum,   -ile    designate    a    place   where 
objects  are  kept  or  are  found  in  abundance ;  as,  — 

columbarium,      dove-cote  (columba) ; 

olivgtum,  olive-orchard    (oliva); 

ovlle,  sheep-fold          (ovis). 


Nouns.  —  Adjectives.  1 1 1 

4.  The  suffix  -atus  denotes  official  position  or  honor ;  as, — 

consulatus.  consulship  (consul). 

5.  The  suffix  -ma  appended  to  nouns  denoting  persons  designates 
a  'vocation  or  the  place  where  it  is  carried  on  ;  as,  — 

doctrina,  teaching  (doctor,  teacher)  ; 

medicma,  the  art  of  healing  (medicus,  physician)  ; 

sutrina,  cobblers  shop  (sutor,  cobbler). 

6.  Patronymics   are   Greek    proper   names   denoting  son   of  .  .  . 
daughter  of.  .  .  .     They  have  the  following  suffixes  :  — 

a)  Masculines :    -ides,  -ades,  -Ides ;    as,  Priamides,  son   of 
Priam ;  Aeneades,  son  of  Aeneas ;  Felides,  son  of  Peleus. 

b)  Feminines  :  -eis,  -is, -ias  ;  as,  Nereis,  daughter  of  Nereus  \ - 
Atlantis,  daughter  of  Atlas ;   Thaumantias,  daughter  of 
Thaumas. 

3.   Nouns  derived  from  Adjectives. 

149.    The  suffixes  -tas  (-itas),  -tudo  (-itudo),  -ia,  -itia  are  used 
for  the  formation  of  abstract  nouns  denoting  qualities ;  as, — 

?^^^^;  celeritas,  swiftness;  magnitude, greatness ;  auda- 
cia,  boldness;  amicitia,  friends /tip. 


B.  ADJECTIVES. 
1.   Adjectives  derived  from  Verfcs. 

150.     i .   The  suffixes  -bundus  and  -cundus  give  nearly  the  force 
of  a  present  participle  ;  as,  — 

tremebundus,  trembling;  iracundus,  wrathful. 

2.  The  suffixes  -ax  and  -ulus  denote  an  inclination  or  tendency, 
mostly  a  faulty  one  ;  as,  — 

loquax,  loquacious ;  credulus,  credulous. 

3.  The  suffix  -idus  denotes  a  state ;  as, — 

calidus,  hot ;  timidus,  timid;  cupidus,  eager. 

4.  The  suffixes  -ilis  and  -bilis  denote  capacity  or  ability,  usually  in 
a  passive  sense  ;  as,  — 

fragilis, />-#£•/&  (i.e.  capable  of  being  broken); 
docilis.  docile. 


1 1 2  Word-Formation. 

2.    Adjectives  derived  from  Nouns. 

a)  From  Common  Nouns. 

151.  i.   The  suffixes  -eus  and  -inus  are  appended  to  names  of  sub- 
stances or  materials  ;  as,  — 

aureus,  of  gold  $          f  erreus,  of  iron ;          faginus,  of  beech. 

2.  The  suffixes  -ius,  -icus,  -His,  -alis,  -aris,  -arms,  -nus,  -anus, 
-Inus,  -ivus,  -ensis  signify  belonging  to,  connected  with ;  as,  — 

oratorius,  oratorical ;  legionarius,  legionary '; 

bellicus,  pertaining  to  war ;        paternus,  paternal ; 
civilis,  civil;  urbanus,  of  the  city; 

regalis,  regal;  marinus,  marine; 

consularis,  consular ;  aestivus,  pertaining  to  summer ; 

circensis,  belonging  to  the  circus. 

3.  The  suffixes  -osus  and  -lentus  denote  fullness ;  as, — 
periculosus,  full  of  danger,        gloriosus,  glorious ; 

dangerous ;  opulentus,  wealthy. 

4.  The  suffix  -tus  has  the  force  of  provided  with ;  as,  — 
barbatus,  bearded;  stellatus,  set  with  stars. 

b)  From  Proper  Names. 

152.  i.    Names    of  persons    take    the    suffixes:    -anus,    -ianus, 
•inus ;  as,  — 

Catonianus,  belonging  to  Cato ;   Plautmus,  belonging  to  Plautus. 

2.  Names  of  nations  take  the  suffixes  -icus,  -ius  ;  as, — 
Germanicus,  German  ;  Thracius,  Thracian. 

3.  Names  of  places  take  the  suffixes  -anus,  -inus,  -ensis,  -aeus, 
-ius ;  as,  — 

Romanus,  Roman ;  Atheniensis,  Athenian ; 

Amermus,  of  Ameria ;  Smyrnaeus,  of  Smyrna ; 

Corinthius,  Corinthian. 

NOTE. anus  and  -ensis,  appended  to  names  of  countries,  desig- 
nate something  stationed  in  the  country  or  connected  with  it,  but  not 
indigenous ;  as,  — 

bellum  Africanum,  a  war  (of  Romans  with  Romans)  in  Africa. 

bellum  Hispaniense,  a  war  carried  on  in  Spain. 

legiones  Gallicanae,  {Roman)  legions  stationed  in  Gaul. 


Adjectives.  —  Verbs.  1 1 3 

3.    Adjectives  derived  from  Adjectives. 

153.  Diminutives  in  -his  sometimes  occur ;  as,  — 

parvolus,  little ; 

misellus  passer,  poor  little  sparrow; 

pauperculus,  needy. 

4.    Adjectives  derived  from  Adverbs. 

154.  These  end  in  -ernus,  -ternus,  -tinus,  -tlnus  ;  as,  — 

hodiernus,  of  to-day  (hodie) ; 

hesternus,  of  yesterday  (her!)  ; 

intestinus,  internal  (intus) ; 

diutinus,  long-lasting  (diu). 


C.    VERBS. 
1.    Verbs  derived  from  Verbs. 

155.  i.  INCEPTIVES  OR  INCHOATIVES.  These  end  in  -sco,  and  are 
formed  from  Present  Stems.  They  denote  the  beginning  of  an  action] 
as,— 

labasco,                 begin  to  totter  (from  labo) ; 

horresco.               grow  rotigh  (from  horreo)  ; 

tremesco,              begin  to  tremble  (from  tremo)  ; 

obdormisco,        fall  asleep  (from  dormio). 

2.  FREQUENTATIVES  OR  INTENSIVES.  These  denote  a  repeated 
or  energetic  action.  They  are  formed  from  the  Participial  Stem,  and 
end  in  -to  or  -so.  Those  derived  from  verbs  of  the  First  Conjuga- 
tion end  in  -ito  (not  -ato,  as  we  should  expect).  Examples  of  Fre- 
quentatives  are  — 

jacto,  toss  about,  brandish  (from  jacid,  hurl) ; 

curso,          run  hither  and  thither         (from  curro,  run)  ; 
volito,         flit  about  (from  volo,y?K). 

a.  Some  double  Frequentatives  occur;  as, — 

cantito,  sing  over  and  over  (canto)  ; 

CUrsitO,  keep  running  about  (curso)  ; 

ventito,  keep  coming. 

b.  agito,  set  in  motion,  is  formed  from  the  Present  Stem. 

I 


1 14  Word- Formation. 

3.  DESIDERATTVES.  These  denote  a  desire  to  do  something.  They 
are  formed  from  the  Participial  Stem,  and  end  in  -urio ;  as,  — 

esurio,       desire  to  eat,  am  hungry  (edo)  ; 

parturio,   want  to  bring  forth,  am  in  labor  (pario). 

2.    Verbs  derived  from  Nouns  and  Adjectives 
(  Denominatives) . 

156.  Denominatives  of  the  First  Conjugation  are  mostly  transitive, 
those  of  the  Second  exclusively  intransitive.  Those  of  the  Third  and 
Fourth  Conjugations  are  partly  transitive,  partly  intransitive.  Exam- 
ples are  — 

a)  From  Nouns  :  — 

fraudo,          defraud          (fraus)  ; 
vestio,  clothe  (vestis) ; 

floreo,  bloom  (flos). 

b)  From  Adjectives  :  — 

libero,  free  (liber) ; 

saevio,          be  fierce          (saevus) . 


D.    ADVERBS. 

157.    i.   Adverbs  derived  from  verbs  are  formed  from  the  Participial 
Stem  by  means  of  the  suffix  -im  ;  as,  — 

certatim,      emulously        (certo) ; 
cursim,         in  haste  (curro) ; 

statim  immediately    (sto) . 

2.    Adverbs  derived  from  nouns  and  adjectives  are  formed :  — 

a)  With  the  suffixes  -tim  (-sim),  -atim  ;  as, — 

gradatim,  step  by  step ; 
paulatim,  gradually ; 
viritim,  man  by  man. 

b)  With  the  suffix  -tus  ;  as,  — 

antiquitus,  of  old; 
radicitus,  from  the  roots. 

c)  With  the  suffix  -ter ;  as,  — 

breviter,  briefly. 


Compounds.  115 


II.    COMPOUNDS. 

158.  i.   Compounds  are  formed  by  the  union  of  simple 
words.     The  second  member  usually  contains  the  essential 
meaning  of   the  compound ;    the  first  member  expresses 
some  modification  of  this. 

2.   Vowel   changes    often   occur    in    the   process    of   composition. 
Thus :  - 

a.  In  the  second  member  of  compounds.     (See  §  7.  i.) 

b.  The  final  vowel  of  the  stem  of  the  first  member  of  the  com- 
pound often  appears  as  I  where  we  should  expect  8  or  & ; 
sometimes  it  is  dropped  altogether,  and  in  case  of  consonant 
stems  I  is  often  inserted ;  as,  — 

signif  er,  standard-bearer ; 
tubicen,  trumpeter ; 
magiianimus,  high-minded; 
matricida,  matricide. 

159.  EXAMPLES  OF  COMPOUNDS. 

1.  Nouns:  — 

a)  Preposition  +  Noun  ;  as,  — 

de-decus,  disgrace ; 
pro-avus,  great-grandfather. 

b)  Noun  +  Verb  Stem  ;  as,  — 

agri-cola,  farmer ; 
fratri-cida,  fratricide. 

2.  Adjectives:  — 

a)  Preposition  +  Adjective  (or  Noun)  ;  as,  — 

per-magnus,  very  great ; 
sub-obscurus,  rather  obscure ; 
a-mens,  frantic. 

b)  Adjective  +  Noun  ;  as,  — 

magn-animus,  great-hearted; 
miseri-cors,  compassionate. 

c)  Noun  +  Verb  Stem  ;  as,  — 

parti-ceps.  sharing; 
morti-f er,  death-dealing. 


1 1 6  Word-Formation. 

3.  Verbs  :- 

The  second  member  is  always  a  verb.     The  first  may  be  — 

a)  A  Noun  ;  as,  — 

aedi-fico,  build. 

b)  An  Adjective ;  as,  — 

ampli-fico,  enlarge. 

c)  An  Adverb ;  as,  — 

male-dico,  rail  at. 

d)  Another  Verb  ;  as,  — 

cale-facio,  make  warm. 

e)  A  Preposition ;  as,  — 

ab-jungo,  detach ; 
re-f ero,  bring  back ; 
dis-cerno,  distinguish ; 
ex-spect5,  await. 

NOTE.  —  Here  belong  the  so-called  INSEPARABLE  PREPOSITIONS  : 
ambi-  (amb-),  around] 
dis-  (dir-,  di-),  apart,  asunder ; 
por-  forward ; 
red-  (re-),  back; 
sed-  (se-),  apart  from; 
ve-,  without. 

4.  Adverbs :  — 

These  are  of  various  types ;  as,  — 
an  tea,  before ; 

ilico  (in  loco),  on  the  spot ; 
imprimis,  especially ; 
obviam,  in  the  way. 


PART    V. 


SYNTAX. 

160.  Syntax  treats  of  the  use  of  words  in  sentences. 

CHAPTER  I.  —  Sentences. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    SENTENCES. 

161.  Sentences  may  be  classified  as  follows  :  — 

1 .  DECLARATIVE,  which  state  something ;  as,  — 

puer  s dibit,  the  boy  is  writing. 

2.  INTERROGATIVE,  which  ask  a  question  ;  as,  — 

quid  puer  scribit,  what  is  the  boy  writing? 

3.  EXCLAMATORY,  which  are  in  the  form  of  an  exclamation;  as, — 

quot  libros  scribit,  how  many  books  he  writes  I 

4.  IMPERATIVE,  which  express  a  command  or  an  admonition  ;  as, — 

scribe,  write ! 

FORM  OF  INTERROGATIVE  SENTENCES. 

162.  Questions  may  be  either  Word-Questions  or  Sen- 
tence-Questions. 

i.  Word-Questions.  These  are  introduced  by  the  various 
interrogative  pronouns  and  adverbs ;  such  as  —  quis,  qui, 
quails,  quantus,  quot,  quotiens,  quo,  qua,  etc.  Thus  :  — 

quis  venit,  who  comes  ? 
quam  dm  manebit,  how  long  will  he  stay  f 
117 


u8  Syntax. 

2.  Sentence-Questions.     These  are  introduced  — 

a)  By  nonne  implying  the  answer  'yes ' ;  as,  — 
11 61111  e  vides,  do  you  not  see  ? 

b)  By  num  implying  the  answer  <  no 1 ;  as,  — 

num.  expectas,  do  you  expect?  (i.e. you  dortt  expect,  do  you  T) 

c)  By  the  enclitic  -ne,  appended  to  the  emphatic  word,  and 
simply  asking  for  information  ;  as,  — 

videsne,  do  you  see  ? 

A  question  introduced  by  -ne  may  receive  a  special  im- 
plication from  the  context ;  as,  — 
sensistine,  did  you  not  perceive  ? 

d)  Sometimes  by  no  special  word,  particularly  in  expressions   of 
siirprise  or  indignation  ;  as,  — 

tu  in  judicum  conspectum  venire  audes,  do  you  dare  to 
come  into  the  presence  of  the  judges  ? 

3.  RHETORICAL  QUESTIONS.      Questions  are  sometimes 
such    merely    in    form,    being    employed    to    express    an 
emphatic  assertion;   as,  quis  dubitat,  who  doubts?  {—no 
one  doubts}. 

4.  DOUBLE  QUESTIONS.      Double   Questions  are   intro- 
duced by  the  following  particles :  — 

utrum   ...  an ; 

-ne an ; 

—   ....  an. 

If  the  second  member  is  negative,  annon  (less  often  necne)  is  used. 
Examples :  — 

utrum  honestum  est  an  turpe,  1 

honestumne  est  an  turpe,          \  is  it  honorable  or  base  ? 

honestum  est  an  turpe, 

suntne  di  annon,  are  there  gods  or  not  ? 

a.    By  an  ellipsis  of  the  first  member,  an  sometimes  stands  alone. 
Its  force  depends  upon  the  context ;  as,  — 

A  rebus  gerendis  abstrahit  senectus.  Quibus  ?  An 
eis  quae  juventute  geruntur  et  viribus?  Old  age  (it  is 
alleged)  withdraws  men  from  active  pursuits.  From  what 
pursuits  ?  fs  it  not  merely  from  those  which  are  performed 
by  the  strength  of  youth? 


Simple  and  Compound  Sentences.  119 

5.   ANSWERS. 

a.  The  answer  YES  is  expressed  by  ita,  etiam,  vero, 
sane,  or  by  repetition  of  the  verb  ;  as,  — 

'visne  locum  mutemus?'  'saneV     '  Shall  we  change  the 

place?"1     'Certainly: 
'estisne  vos  legati?  '  'sumus/    'Are  you  envoys?"1    ''Yes? 

b.  The   answer   No   is   expressed   by   non,    minime, 
minime    vero,   or  by   repeating    the    verb   with    a 
negative;   as,  — 

6  jam  ea  praeteriit  ?  '  <  non.1     <  Has  it  passed?  '     <  No: 

<  estne  f  rater  intus  ?  '  *  non  est.1    '  /s  your  brother  within  ?  ' 


SUBJECT   AND    PREDICATE. 

163.  The  two  essential  parts  of  a  sentence  are  the  SUB- 
JECT and  PREDICATE. 

The  SUBJECT  is  that  concerning  which  something  is  said, 
asked,  etc.  The  PREDICATE  is  that  which  is  said,  asked, 
etc.,  concerning  the  SUBJECT. 

SIMPLE    AND    COMPOUND    SENTENCES. 

164.  Sentences   containing   but    one    Subject    and    one 
Predicate  are  called  SIMPLE  SENTENCES,  those  containing 
more  are  called  COMPOUND  SENTENCES.     Thus  puer  libros 
legit,  the  boy  reads  books,  is  a  Simple  Sentence  ;   but  puer 
libros    legit   et   epistulas    scribit,    the    boy   reads    books    and 
writes  letters,   is   a   Compound   Sentence.      The   different 
members  of  a  compound  Sentence  are  called  CLAUSES. 

165.  COORDINATE  AND   SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES.     Clauses  which 
stand  upon  an  equality  are  called  COORDINATE  ;  a  Clause  dependent 
upon  another  is  called  SUBORDINATE.     Thus  in  puer  libros  legit  et 
epistulas  scribit  the  two  clauses  are  Coordinate  ;  but  in  puer  libros 
legit  quos  pater  scribit,  the  boy  reads  the  books  which  his  father  writes, 
the  second  clause  is  Subordinate  to  the  first. 


1 20  Syntax. 

CHAPTER   II.  —  Syntax  of  Nouns. 

SUBJECT. 

166.  The  Subject  of  a   Finite  Verb  (i.e.  any  form  of 
the  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  or  Imperative)  is  in  the  Nomi- 
native Case. 

1 .  The  Subject  may  be  — 

a)  A  Noun  or  Pronoun  ;  as,  — 
puer  scribit,  the  boy  writes  ; 
Me  scribit,  this  man  writes. 

b)  An  Infinitive  ;  as,  — 

decSrum  est  pro  patria  mori,  to  die  for  one^s  country  is  a 
noble  thing. 

c)  A  Clause  ;  as,  — 

opportune  accidit  quod  venisti,  /'/  happened  opportunely 
that  you  arrived. 

2.  A  Personal  Pronoun  as  Subject  is  usually  implied  in  the  Verb, 
and  is  not  separately  expressed ;  as,  — 

scribo,  /  write ;  videt,  he  sees. 

a.    But  for  the  purpose  of  emphasis  or  contrast  the  Pronoun  is 
expressed ;  as,  — 
ego  scribo  et  tu  legis,  /  write,  and  you  read. 

3.  The  verb  is  sometimes  omitted  when  it  can  be  easily  supplied 
from  the  context,  especially  the  auxiliary  sum  ;  as,  — 

recte  ille  (sc.  facit),  he  does  rightly ;  cSnsul  profectus  (sc.  est),  the 
consul  set  out. 

PREDICATE   NOUNS. 

167.  A  PREDICATE  NOUN  is  one  connected  with  the  Sub- 
ject by  some  form  of  the  verb  Sum  or  a  similar  verb. 

168.  A    Predicate    Noun    agrees   with    its    Subject    in 
Case  ;  *  as,  — 


1  For  the  Predicate  Genitive  see  §§  198,  3;  203,  5. 


Predicate  Nouns.  —  Appositives.  121 

Cicero  orator  f  uit,  Cicero  was  an  orator ; 
Numa  creatus  est  rex,  Numa  was  elected  king. 

1 .  When  possible  the  Predicate  Noun  usually  agrees  with  its  Subject 
in  Gender  also  ;  as,  — 

philosophia  est  vitae  magistra,  philosophy  is  the  guide  of  life. 

2.  Besides  sum  the  verbs  most  frequently  accompanied  by  a  Predi- 
cate Noun  are  — 

a)  fio,  evado,  existo  ;  maneo  ;  videor  ;  as,  — 

Croesus  non  semper  maiisit  rex,  Croesus  did  not  always 
remain  king. 

b)  Passive  verbs  of  making,  calling,  regarding,  etc. ;  as,  creor, 
appellor,  habeor  ;  as,  — 

Romulus  rex  appellatus  est,  Romulus  was  called  king ; 
habitus  est  deus,  he  was  regarded  as  a  god. 

APPOSITIVES. 

169.    i.    An  Appositive  is  a  Noun  explaining  or  defining 
another  Noun  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing ;  as,  — 

Cicero  consul,  Cicero,  the  Consul; 
urbs  Roma,  the  city  Rome. 

2.  An  Appositive  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  Case ;  as,— 
opera  Ciceronis  oratoris,  the  works  of  Cicero,  the  orator; 

apud  Herodotum,  patrem  historiae,  in  the  works  of  Herodotus,  the 
father  of  history . 

3.  When  possible  the  Appositive  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  Gen- 
der also ;  as,  — 

assentatio  adjutrix  vitiorum,  flattery,  the  promoter  of  evils. 

4.  A  Locative  may  take  in  Apposition  the  Ablative  of  urbs  or 
oppidum,  with  or  without  a  preposition  ;  as,  — 

Corinthi,  urbe  praeclara,  or  in  urbe  praeclara,  at  Corinth,  a  famous 
city. 

5.  PARTITIVE  APPOSITION.     A  Noun  denoting  a  whole  is  frequently 
followed  by  an  Appositive  denoting  a  part ;  as,  — 

milites,  fortissimus  quisque,  hostibus  restiteruiit,  the  soldiers,  all 
the  bravest  of  tJiem,  resisted  the  enemy. 


122  Syntax. 

THE    CASES. 

THE   NOMINATIVE. 

170.  The  Nominative  is  confined  to  its  use  as  Subject, 
Appositive,  or  Predicate  Noun,  as  already  explained.     See 
§§  166-169. 

THE   VOCATIVE. 

171.  The  Vocative  is  the  Case  of  direct  address ;  as,  — 

credits  mihi,  judices,  believe  me,  judges. 

1 .  By  a  species  of  attraction,  the  Nominative  is  occasionally  used 
for  the  Vocative,  especially  in  poetry  and  formal  prose ;  as,  audl  tu, 
populus  Albanus,  hear  ye,  Alban  people! 

2.  Similarly  the  Appositive  of  a  Vocative  may,  in  poetry,  stand  in 
the  Nominative ;  as,  iiate,  mea  magna  potentia  solus,  O  son,  alone 
the  source  of  my  great  power. 

THE   ACCUSATIVE. 

172.  The  Accusative  is  the  Case  of  the  Direct  Object. 

173.  The  Direct  Object  may  express  either  of  the  two 
following  relations :  — 

A.  The  PERSON  OR  THING  AFFECTED  by  the  action ;  as,  — 

consulem  interfecit,  he  slew  the  consul; 
lego  librum,  /  read  the  book. 

B.  The  RESULT  PRODUCED  by  the  action ;  as,  — 

librum  scrips!,  I  wrote  a  book  (i.e.  produced  one) ; 
templum  struit,  he  constructs  a  tejnple. 

174.  Verbs  that  admit  a  Direct  Object  of  either  of  these 
two  types  are  TRANSITIVE  VERBS. 

a.  Verbs  that  regularly  take  a  Direct  Object  are  sometimes  used 
without  it.  They  are  then  said  to  be  employed  absolutely ; 
as,— 

rumor  est  meum  gnatum  amare,  it  is  rumored  that  my 
son  is  in  love. 


The  Accusative.  123 

Accusative  of  the  Person  or  Thing  Affected. 

175.    i.    This  is  the  most  frequent   use   of   the  Accu- 
sative ;    as  in  — 

parentes  amamus,  we  love  our  parents  ; 
mare  aspicit,  he  gazes  at  the  sea. 

2.    The  following  classes  of  Verbs  taking  an  Accusative  of  this  kind 
are  worthy  of  note :  — 

a)  Many  Intransitive  Verbs,  when  compounded  with  a  Preposi- 
tion, become  Transitive.     Thus  :  — 

1 )  Compounds  of  circum,  praeter,  trans  ;  as,  — 
hostes  circumstare,  to  surround  the  enemy ; 
urbem  praeterire,  to  pass  by  the  city ; 

muros  transcendere,  to  climb  over  the  walls. 

2)  Less  frequently,  compounds  of  ad,  per,  in,  sub  ;  as, — 
adire  urbem,  to  visit  the  city  ; 

peragrare  Italiam,  to  travel  through  Italy ; 
mire  magistratum.  to  take  office ; 
subire  periculum,  to  undergo  danger. 

b)  Many  Verbs  expressing  emotions,  regularly  Intransitive,  have 
also  a  Transitive  use  ;  as,  — 

queror  fatum,  I  lament  my  fate ; 

doleo  ejus  mortem,  I  grieve  at  his  death  ; 

rideo  tuam  stultitiam,  I  laugh  at  your  folly. 

So  also  lugeo,  maereo,  mourn ;  gemd,  bemoan;  horreo, 

shudder,  and  others. 

c)  The  impersonals  decet,  it  becomes ;  dedecet,  //  is  unbecom- 
ing';  juvat,  //  pleases,  take  the  Accusative  of  the  Person 
Affected ;  as,  — 

me  decet  haec  dicere,  it  becomes  me  to  say  this. 

d)    In  poetry  many  Passive  Verbs,  in  imitation  of  Greek  usage, 
are  employed  as  Middles  (§  256,  i  ;  2),  and  take  the  Accusa- 
tive as  Object ;  as,  — 
galeam  iiiduitur,  he  puts  on  his  helmet ; 
cinctus  tempora  hedera,  having  bound  his  temples  with 

ivy ; 
no  do  sinus  collecta,  having  gathered  her  dress  in  a  knot. 


1 24  Syntax. 

Accusative  of  the  Result  Produced. 

176.    I.    The  ordinary  type  of  this  Accusative  is  seen  in 
such  expressions  as  — 

librum  scribo,  /  write  a  book ; 
do  mum  aedifico,  /  build  a  house. 

2.  Many  Verbs   usually  Intransitive   take   a  Neuter  Pronoun,  or 
Adjective  used  as  an  Accusative  of  Result.     Thus  :  — 

a)  A  Neuter  Pronoun  ;  as,  — 

haec  gemebat,  he  made  these  moans', 

illud  glorior,  /  make  this  boast ;    • 

eadem  peccat,  he  makes  the  same  mistakes. 

b)  A  Neuter  Adjective,  —  particularly  Adjectives  of  number  or 
amozmt,  —  multum,  multa,  omnia,  pauca,  etc.  ;  as,  — 

multa  dubito,  /  have  many  doubts ; 
pauca  studet,  he  has  few  interests ; 
multum  valet,  he  has  great  strength  ; 
nihil  progreditur,  he  makes  no  progress. 

NOTE.  —  In  poetry  other  Adjectives  are  freely  used  in  this  construction ;  as,  — 

minitantem  vana,  making  vain  threats ; 
acerba  tuens,  giving  a  fierce  look  ; 
dulce  loquentem,  sweetly  talking. 

3.  The  adverbial  use  of  several  Neuter  Pronouns  and  Adjectives 
grows  out  of  this  Accusative  ;  as,  — 

multum  sunt  in  venatione,  they  are  much  engaged  in  hunting. 

a.    So  also  plurimum,  very  greatly]   plerumque,  generally '; 
aliquid,  somewhat]  quid,  why?  and  some  others. 

4.  Sometimes  an  Intransitive  Verb  takes  an  Accusative  of  Result 
which  is  of  kindred  etymology  with  the  Verb.     This  is  called  a  COG- 
NATE ACCUSATIVE,  and  is  usually  modified  by  an  Adjective  ;  as,  — 

sempiternam  servitutem  serviat,  let  him  serve  an  ever  lasting  slavery] 
vitam  duram  vixi,  /  have  lived  a  hard  life. 

a.    Sometimes  -the  Cognate  Accusative  is  not  of  kindred  ety- 
mology, but  merely  of  kindred  meaning ;  as,  — 

stadium  currit,  he  runs  a  race ; 

Olympia  vincit,  he  wins  an  Olympic  victory. 


The  Accusative.  125 

5 .    The  Accusative  of  Result  occurs  also  after  Verbs  of  tasting  and 
smelling^  as, — 

piscis  mare  sapit,  the  fish  tastes  of  the  sea ; 

61  atioiies  ant  I  quit  a  tern  redolent,  the  speeches  smack  of  the  past. 

Two  Accusatives  —  Direct  Object  and  Predicate  Accusative. 

177.  i .    Many  Verbs  of  Making,  Choosing,  Calling,  Show- 
ing, and  the  like,  take  two  Accusatives,  one  of  the  Person 
or  Thing  Affected,  the  other  a  Predicate  Accusative ;  as,  - 

me  heredem  fecit,  he  wade  me  heir. 

Here  me  is  Direct  Object,  heredem  Predicate  Accusative. 
So  also  — 

eum  judiccm  cepere,  they  took  him  as  judge ; 

urbem  Romam  vocavit,  he  called  the  city  Rome; 

se  virum  praestitit,  he  showed  himself  a  man. 

2.  The  Predicate   Accusative  may  be  an  Adjective  as  well  as  a 
Noun ;  as, — 

homines  caecos  reddit  cupiditas,  covetousness  renders  men  blind; 
Apollo  Socratem  sapientissimum  jiidicavit,  Apollo  adjudged  Soc- 
rates the  wisest  man. 

a.    Some  Verbs,  as  reddo,  allow  only  an  Adjective  as  the  Predicate  Accu- 
sative. 

3.  In  the  Passive  the  Direct  Object  becomes  the  Subject,  and  the 
Predicate  Accusative  becomes  Predicate  Nominative;  as, — 

urbs  Roma  vocata  est,  the  city  was  called  Rome. 

a.    Not  all  Verbs  adfnit  the  Passive  construction ;  reddo  and  efficio,  for 
example,  never  take  it. 

Two  Accusatives  —  Person  and  Thing. 

178.  i.    Some  Verbs  take  two  Accusatives,  one  of  the 
Person    Affected,    the    other    of    the    Result    Produced. 
Thus:- 

d)    Verbs  of  requesting  and  demanding,  as, — 
otium  divos  rogat,  he  asks  the  gods  for  rest; 
me  duas  orationes  postulas,  you  demand  two  speeches  of 
me. 


126  Syntax. 

So  also  oro,  posco,  reposco,  exposed,  flagito,  though 

some  of  these  prefer  the  Ablative  with  ab  to  the  Accusative 

of  the  Person  ;  as,  — 

opem  a  te  posco,  /  demand  aid  of  you. 
b)    Verbs  of  teaching  (doceo  and  its  compounds);  as, — 

te  litteras  doceo,  I  teach  you  your  letters. 
:)    Verbs  of  inquiring ;  as,  — 

te  haec  rogo,  /  ask  you  this ; 

te  sententiam  rogo,  I  ask  you  your  opinion. 

d)  Several  Special  Verbs  ;  viz.  moneo,  admoneo,  commoneo, 
cogo,  accuse,  arguo,  and  a  few  others.  These  admit  only 
a  Neuter  Pronoun  or  Adjective  as  Accusative  of  the  Thing ; 
as,— 

te  haec  moneo,  I  give  you  this  advice] 
me  id  accusas,  you  bring  this  accusation  against  me. 
id  cogit  nos  natura,  nature  compels  us  (to)  this. 

e)    One  Verb  of  concealing,  celo  ;  as,  — 

non  te  celavi  sermonem,  /  have  not  concealed  the  conver- 
sation from  you. 

2.    In  the  Passive  construction  the  Accusative  of  the  Person  be- 
comes the  Subject,  and  the  Accusative  of  the  Thing  is  retained ;  as, — 
omnes  artes  edoctus  est,  he  was  taught  all  accomplishments; 
rogatus  sum  sententiam,  /  was  asked  my  opinion  ; 
aliquid  admonemur,  we  are  given  some  admonition. 

a.     Only  a  few  Verbs  admit  the  Passive  construction. 

Two  Accusatives  with  Compounds. 

179.  i.  Transitive  compounds  of  trans  may  take  two 
Accusatives,  one  dependent  upon  the  Verb,  the  other 
upon  the  Preposition ;  as,  - 

milites  flumen  traducit,  he  leads  his  soldiers  across  the  river. 

2.  With  other  compounds  this  construction  is  rare. 

3.  In  the  Passive  the  Accusative  dependent  upon  the  preposition  is 
retained ;  as,  — 

milites  flumen  traducebaiitur,  the  soldiers  were  led  across  the  river. 


The  Accusative.  127 


Synecdochical  (or  Greek)  Accusative. 

180.    i .   The  Synecdochical  (or  Greek)  Accusative  denotes  the  part 
to  which  an  action  or  quality  refers ;  as,  — 

tremit  artus,  literally,  he  trembles  as  to  his  limbs,  i.e.  his  limbs  tremble ; 
nuda  germ,  lit.  bare  as  to  the  knee,  i.e.  with  knee  bare ; 
manus  revinctus,  lit.  tied  as  to  the  hands,  i.e.  with  hands  tied. 

n.     Note  that  this  construction  — 

a)  Is  borrowed  from  the  Greek. 

b)  Is  chiefly  confined  to  poetry. 

c)  Usually  refers  to  a  part  of  the  body. 

d)  Is  used  with  Adjectives  as  well  as  Verbs. 


Accusative  of  Time  and  Space. 

181.  I.    Duration  of  Time  and  Extent  of  Space  are  de- 
noted by  the  Accusative  ;  as,  — 

quadraginta  annos  vixit,  he  lived  forty  years  ; 

hie  locus  passus  sescentos  aberat,  this  place  was  six  hundred  paces 

away. 

arbores  quinquaginta  pedes  altae,  trees  fifty  feet  high. 
abhinc  tres  annos,  three  years  ago. 

2.    Emphasis  is  sometimes  added  by  using  the  Preposition  per ;  as, 
per  duds- annos  laboravi,  /  toiled  throughout  two  years. 

Accusative  of  Limit  of  Motion. 

182.  i.    The  Accusative  of  Limit  of  Motion  is  used  — 
d)    With  names  of  Towns,  Small  Islands,  and  Peninsulas  ;  as,  — 

Romam  veni,  /  came  to  Rome ; 

Athenas  proficlscitur,  he  sets  out  for  Athens ; 

Delum  perveni,  I  arrived  at  Delos. 

b)    With  domum,  domos,  riis  ;  as,  — 

domum  revertitur,  he  returns  home ; 
rus  Tbo,  I  shall  go  to  the  country. 

NOTE.  —  When  domus  means  house  (i.e.  building),  it  takes  a  Prep- 
osition ;  as,  — 

in  domum  veterem  remigrare,  to  move  back  to  an  old  house. 


128  '<*""      ^  "Syntax. 

2.  Other  designations  of  place  than  those  above  mentioned  require 
a  Preposition  to  denote  Limit  of  Motion  ;  as,  — 

Ad  Italiam  venit,  he  came  to  Italy. 

a.  The    Preposition    is    also    required   when    the    Accusatives 
urbem   or  oppidum  stand   in   apposition  with   the   name 
of  a  town  ;    as,  — 

Cirtam  in  urbem,  to  the  city  Cirta  ; 
Genavam  ad  oppidum,  to  the  town  Geneva. 

b,  The  name  of  a  town  denoting  limit  of  motion  may  be  com- 
bined with  the  name  of  a  country  or  other  word  dependent 
upon  a  preposition  •  as,  — 

Thurios  in  Italiam)  pervectus,  carried  to  Thurii  in  Italy ; 
cum  Acen  ad  exercitum  venisset,  when  he  had  come  to 
the  army  at  Ace. 

3.  To  denote  toward,  to  the  vicinity  of,  in  the  vicinity  of,  ad  is 
used ;  as,  — 

ad  Tarentum  veni,  /  came  to  the  vicinity  of  Tarentum ; 

ad  Cannas  pugna  facta  est,  a  battle  was  fought  near  Cannes. 

4.  In  poetry  the  Accusative  of  any  noun  denoting  a  place  may  be 
used  without  a  preposition  to  express  the  limit  of  motion  ;  as,  — 

Italiam  venit,  he  came  to  Italy. 

5.  The  goal  notion  seems  to  represent  the  original  function  of  the 
Accusative  Case.      Traces  of  this  primitive  force  are  recognizable  in 
the  phrase  infitias  ire,  to  deny  (lit.  to  go  to  a  denial),  and  a  few 
other  similar  expressions. 

Accusative  in  Exclamations. 

183.  The  Accusative,  generally  modified  by  an  Adjec- 
tive, is  used  in  Exclamations  ;  as,  — 

me  miserum   ah,  wretched  me ! 

6  fallacem  spem,  oh,  deceptive  hope  ! 

Accusative  as  Subject  of  the  Infinitive. 

184.  The  Subject  of  the  Infinitive  is  put  in  the  Accusa- 
tive ;  as,  — 

video  hominem  abire,  /  see  that  the  man  is  going  away. 


The  Accusative.  —  The  Dative.  129 

Other  Uses  of  the  Accusative. 
185.    Here  belong  — 

1 .  Some  Accusatives  which  were  originally  Appositives  ;  viz.  — 

id  genus,  of  that  kind;  as,  homines  id  genus,  men  of  that 
kind  (originally  homines,  id  genus  hominum,  men,  that 
kind  of  men) ; 

virile  secus,  muliebre  secus,  of  the  male  sex,  of  the  female  sex; 

meam  vicem,  tuam  vicem,  etc.,  for  my  part,  etc.; 

bonam  partem,  in  large  part ; 

maximam  partem,  for  the  most  part. 

2.  Some  phrases  of  doubtful  origin;  as, — 

id  temporis,  at  that  time;  quod  si,  but  if; 

id  aetatis,  at  that  time ;  cetera,  in  other  respects ; 

dextrum,  on  the  right ;  laevum,  on  the  left. 


THE   DATIVE. 

186.  The    Dative   case  in   general   expresses   relations 
rhich  are  designated  in  English  by  the  prepositions  to 
nd  for. 

Dative  of  Indirect  Object. 

187.  The  commonest  use  of  the  Dative  is  to  denote  the 
erson  to  whom  something  is  given,  said,  or  done.    Thus  :  — 

I.    With  transitive  verbs  in  connection  with  the  Accu- 
ative  ;  as,  — 

hanc  pecuniam  mihi  dat,  he  gives  me  this  money ; 
haec  nobis  dixit,  he  said  this  to  us. 

a.    Some  verbs  which  take  this  construction  also  admit  another, 
particularly  the  verbs  dono  and  circumdo.     Thus  :  — 

Either  Themistocli  munera  donavit,  he  presented  gifts  to 
Themistodes ,  or 

Themistoclem  muneribus  donavit,  he  presented  Themis- 
todes with  gifts ; 

urbi  miiros  circumdat,  he  builds  walls  around  the  city,  or 

urbem  muris  circumdat,  he  surrounds  the  city  with  walls. 

K 


130  Syntax. 

II.  With  many  intransitive  verbs ;  as,  — 

nulli  labor!  cedit,  he  yields  to  no  labor ; 
tibi  suscenseo,  I  am  angry  with  you. 

a.  Here  belong   many  verbs   signifying  favor?-  help,  injure, 
please,  displease,  trust,  distrust,  command,  obey,  serve,  resist, 
indulge,  spare,  pardon,  envy,  threaten,  believe,  persuade,  and 
the  like  ;  as,  — 

Caesar  popularibus  favet,  Caesar  favors  (i.e.  is  favorable 

to)  the  popular  party  ; 
amicis  coiifido,  I  trust  (to)  my  friends ; 
militibus  igiioscit,  he  pardons  (i.e.  grants  pardon  to)  the 

troops ; 
Orgetorix  Helvetiis  persuasit,  Orgetorix persuaded  (made 

it  acceptable  to)  the  Helvetians  ; 
boms  nocet  qui  malls  parcit,  he  injures  (does  harm  to) 

the  good,  who  spares  the  bad. 

NOTE.  —  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  verbs  do  not  take  the  Dative  by 
virtue  of  their  apparent  English  equivalence,  but  simply  because  they  are  intransi- 
tive, and  adapted  to  an  indirect  object.  Some  verbs  of  the  same  apparent  Eng- 
lish equivalence  are  transitive  and  govern  the  Accusative;  as,  juvo,  laed.6, 
delecto.  Thus:  audentes  deus  juvat,  God  helps  the  bold;  neminem 
laesit,  he  injured  no  one. 

b.  Verbs  of  this  class  are  used   in  the  passive   only  imper- 
sonally ;  as,  — 

tibi  parcitur,  yoit  are  spared ; 

mihi  persuadetur,  I  am  being  persuaded ; 

el  invidetur,  he  is  envied. 

III.  With  many  verbs  compounded  with  the   preposi- 
tions :    ad,    ante,    com-,2  in,   inter,    ob,   post,    prae,    pro,    sub, 
super,  and  sometimes  circum. 

These  verbs  fall  into  two  main  classes,  — 

i.  Many  simple  verbs  which  cannot  take  a  Dative  cf  the  indi- 
rect object  become  capable  of  doing  so  when  ccmpounded  with  a 
preposition  ;  as,  —  * 

afflictis  succurrit,  he  helps  the  afflicted ; 

exercitui  praef  uit,  he  was  in  command  of  the  army ; 

intersum  consiliis,  /  share  in  the  deliberations. 

1  Many  such  verbs  were  originally  intransitive  in  English  also,  and  once  gov- 
erned the  Dative.  2  This  was  the  original  form  of  the  preposition  cum. 


The  Dative.  131 

2.  Many  transitive  verbs  which  take  only  a  direct  object  become 
capable,  when  compounded,  of  taking  a  Dative  also  as  indirect 
object ;  as,  — 

pecuniae  pudorem  anteponit,  he  puts  honor  before  money ; 
inicere  spem  amicis,  to  inspire  hope  in  one 's  friends ; 
Labienum   exercitui  praefecit,  he  put  Labienus  in  charge  of  the 
army. 

Dative  of  Reference. 

188.  i.  The  Dative  of  Reference  denotes  the  person  to 
whom  a  statement  refers •,  of  ivJiom  it  is  true,  or  to  whom  it 
is  of  interest ;  as,  — 

mini  ante  oculos  versaris,  you  hover  before  my  eyes  (lit.  hover  before 

the  eyes  to  me)  ; 
ill!  severitas  amorem  non  deminuit,  ///  his  case  severity  did  not 

diminish  love  (lit.  to  him  severity  did  not  diminish)  ; 
intercltidere  hostibus  commeatum,  to  cut  off  the  supplies  of  the 

enemy. 

a.     Note  the  phrase  alicui  interdicere  aqua  et  igni,  to  interdict  one 
from  fire  and  water. 

NOTE.  —  The  Dative  of  Reference,  unlike  the  Dative  of  Indirect  Object,  does 
not  modify  the  verb,  but  rather  the  sentence  as  a  whole.  It  is  often  used  where, 
according  to  the  English  idiom,  we  should  expect  a  Genitive ;  so  in  the  first  and 
third  of  the  above  examples. 

2.    Special  varieties  of  the  Dative  of  Reference  are  — 

d)    Dative  of  the  Local  Standpoint.     This   is  regularly  a 

participle ;  as,  — 

oppidum  primum  Thessaliae  venientibus  ab  EpirS,  the 

first  town  of  Thessaly  as  you  come  from  Epirus  (lit. 

to  those  coming  from  E.). 

b)    Ethical  Dative.     This  name  is  given  to  those  Dative  con- 
structions of  the  personal  pronouns  in  which  the  connection 
of  the  Dative  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence  is  of  the  very 
slightest  sort ;  as,  — 
tu  mihi  istius  audaciam  def endis  ?  tell  me,  do  you  defend 

that  marts  audacity  ? 

quid  mihi  Celsus  agit?  what  is  my  Celsus  doing? 
quid  sibi  vult  ?  what  does  he  mean  ?  (lit.  wish  for  him- 

self?) 


132  Syntax. 

r)    Dative  of  Person  Judging  ;  as,  — 

erit  ille  mihi  semper  deus,  he  will  always  be  a  god  to  me 

(i.e.  in  my  opinion)  ; 

quae  ista  servitus  tarn  claro  homini,  how  can  that  be 
slavery  to  so  illustrious  a  man  (i.e.  to  his  mind) ! 

d)    Dative  of  Separation.     Compounds  of  ab,  de,  ex,  ad 

which  have   the   general   sense  of  taking  away  govern   a 
Dative  of  the  person,  less  often  of  the  thing ;  as,  — 
hon5rem  detraxerunt  homini,  they  took  away  the  honor 

from  the  man ; 
Caesar  regi  tetrarchiam  eripuit,  Caesar  took  the  tetrarchy 

away  from  the  king] 
silici  scintillam  excudit,  he  struck  a  spark  from  the  flint. 

Dative  of  Agency. 

189.  The  Dative  is  used  to  denote  agency  — 

1.  Regularly  with  the  Gerundive  ;  as, — 

haec  nobis  agenda  sunt,  these  things  must  be  done  by  us ; 
mihi  eundum  est,  I  must  go  (lit.  it  must  be  gone  by  me).  ' 

a.     To  avoid  ambiguity,  a  with  the  Ablative  is  sometimes  used  with  the 
Gerundive ;  as,  — 
hostibus  a  nobis  parcendum  est,  the  enemy  must  be  spared  by  us. 

2.  Much  less  frequently  with  the  compound  tenses  of  the  passive 
voice ;  as,  — 

disputatio,  quae  mihi  nuper  habita  est,  the  discussion  which  was 
recently  conducted  by  me. 

3.  Rarely  with  the  uncompounded  tenses  of  the  passive  ;  as, — 
honesta  boms  viris  quaeruntur,  noble  ends  are  sought  by  good. men. 

Dative  of  Possession. 

190.  The  Dative  of  Possession  occurs  with  the  verb  esse 
in  expressions  of  the  type  :  — 

mihi  est  liber,  /  have  a  book ; 

mihi  nomen  est  Marcus,  I  have  the  name  Marcus. 

i.     But  with  nomen  est  the  name  is  more  commonly  attracted 
into  the  Dative ;   as,  mihi  nomen  est  Marco. 


The  Dative.  133 

Dative  of  Purpose. 

191.  The  Dative  of  Purpose  designates  the  end  toward 
iv J lid i  an  action  is  directed  or  for  wJiich  something  exists. 
It  is  used  — 

1 .  Unaccompanied  by  another  Dative ;  as,  — 
castris  locum  deligere,  to  choose  a  place  for  a  camp  ; 

legiones  praesidio  relinquere,  to  leave  the  legions  as  a  guard  (lit. 

for  a  guard) ; 
receptui  canere,  to  sound  the  signal  for  a  retreat. 

2.  Much  more  frequently  in  connection  with   another  Dative   of 
the  person :  — 

a)  Especially  \yith  some  form  of  ease  ;  as,  — 

f  ortunae  tuae  mini  curae  sunt,  your  fortunes  are  a  care 

to  me  (lit.  for  a  care) ; 

nobis  sunt  odio,  they  are  an  object  of  hatred  to  us ; 
cui  bono?  to  'whom  is  it  of  advantage? 

b)  With  other  verbs  ;  as,  — 

hos  tibi  muneri  misit,  he  has  sent  these  to  you  for  a  pres- 
ent; 

Pausanias  Atticis  venit  auxilio,  Pausanias  came  to  the 
aid  of  the  Athenians  (lit.  to  the  Athenians  for  help). 

3.  In  connection  with  the  Gerundive;  as, — 

decemviri  legibus  scribuiidis,  decemvirs  for  codifying  the  laws. 
mo  gerendS  bello  ducem  creavere,  me  they  have  made  leader  for 

carrying  on  the  war. 
NOTE.  —  This  construction  with  the  gerundive  is  not  common  till  Livy. 

Dative  -with  Adjectives. 

192.  The  use  of  the  Dative  with  Adjectives  corresponds 
very  closely  to  its  use  with  verbs.     Thus  :  — 

i .  Corresponding  to  the  Dative  of  Indirect  Object  it  occurs  with 
adjectives  signifying :  friendly,  unfriendly,  similar,  dissimilar,  equal, 
near,  related  to,  etc. ;  as,  — 

mini  inimicus,  hostile  to  me ; 

sunt  proximi  Germanis,  they  are  next  to  the  Germans ; 

noxiae  poena  par  esto,  let  the  penalty  be  equal  to  the  damage. 


134  Syntax. 

a.    For   propior    and    proximus,   with    the    Accusative,   see 
§  HI,  3- 

2.     Corresponding  to  the  Dative  of  Purpose  the  Dative  occurs  with 
adjectives  signifying  :  suitable,  adapted,  fit;  as, — 

castris  idoneus  locus,  a  place  fit  for  a  camp; 

apta  dies  sacrificio,  a  day  suitable  for  a  sacrifice. 
NOTE.  —  Adjectives  of  this  last  class  often  take  the  Accusative  with  ad. 

Dative  of  Direction. 

193.    In  the  poets  the  Dative  is  occasionally  used  to  denote  the 
direction  of  motion ;  as,  — 

it  clamor  caelo,  the  shout  goes  heavenward; 

cineres  rivo  fluent!  jace,  cast  the  ashes  toward  the  flowing  stream. 

i.    By  an  extension  of  this  construction  the  poets  sometimes  use 
the  Dative  to  denote  the  //;////  of  motion ;  as,  — 
dum  Latio  deos  inferret,  while  he  was  bringing  his  gods  to  Latium. 


THE   GENITIVE. 

194.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  Nouns,  Adjectives,  and 
Verbs. 

GENITIVE   WITH    NOUNS. 

195.  With  Nouns  the  Genitive  is  the  case  which  defines  the 
meaning  of  the  limited  noun  more  closely.     This  relation  is 
generally  indicated  in  English  by  the  preposition  of.    There 
are  the  following  varieties  of  the  Genitive  with  Nouns  :  — 

Genitive  of  Origin,  Objective  Genitive, 

Genitive  of  Material,  Genitive  of  the  Whole, 

Genitive  of  Possession,  Appositional  Genitive, 

Subjective  Genitive,  Genitive  of  Quality. 

196.  Genitive  of  Origin  ;  as,  — 

Marci  filius,  the  son  of  Marcus. 

197.  Genitive  of  Material ;  as,  — 

talentum  auri.,  a  talent  of  gold ; 
modius  frumenti,  a  peck  of  grain. 


The  Dative.  —  The  Genitive.  135 

198.  Genitive  of  Possession  or  Ownership  ;  as,  — 

domus  Ciceronis,  Cicero's  house. 

1 .  Here  belongs  the  Genitive  with  causa  and  gratia.     The  Geni- 
tive always  precedes  ;  as,  — 

hominum  causa,  for  the  sake  of  men  ; 

meorum  amicorum  gratia,  for  the  sake  of  my  friends. 

2.  Instar  (lit.  image)  also  takes  the  Possessive  Genitive ;  as,  — 

equus  instar  mentis,  a  horse  as  large  as  a  mountain. 

3.  The  Possessive  Genitive  is  often  used  predicatively,  especially 
with  esse  and  fieri ;  as,  — 

domus  est  regis,  the  house  is  the  king's ; 

stulti  est  in  errore  manere,  //  is  (the  parf)  of  a  fool  to  remain  in 
error  ; 

de  bellS  judicium  imperatoris  est,  non  militum,  the  decision  con- 
cerning war  belongs  to  the  general,  not  to  the  soldiers. 

199.  Subjective  Genitive.     This  denotes  the  person  who  makes 
or  produces  something  or  who  has  a  feeling;  as,  — 

dicta  Platonis,  the  utterances  of  Plato ; 
timores  liber  orum,  the  fears  of  the  children. 

200.  Objective  Genitive.     This  denotes  the  object  of  an  action 
or  feeling;  as, — 

metus  deorum,  the  fear  of 'the  gods ; 

amor  libertatis,  love  of  'liberty ; 

consuetude  bonorum  hominum,  intercourse  with  good  men. 

i .    This  relation  is  often  expressed  by  means  of  prepositions  ;  as,  — 
amor  erga  parentes,  love  toward  one^s  parents. 

201.  Genitive    of    the  Whole.       This  designates  the   whole   of 
which  a  part  is  taken.     It  is  used  — 

i.    With  Nouns,  Pronouns,  Comparatives,  Superlatives,  and  Ordinal 
Numerals ;  as,  — 

magna  pars  hominum,  a  great  part  of  mankind; 

duo  mill  a  peditum,  two  thousand  foot-soldiers  ; 

quis  mortalium,  who  of  mortals  ? 

major  fratrum,  the  elder  of  the  brothers ; 

gens  maxima  Germanorum,  the  largest  tribe  of  the  Germans ; 

primus  omnium,  the  first  of  all. 


1 36  Syntax. 

a.  Yet  instead  of  the  Genitive  of  the  Whole  we  often  find  ex  or  de  with 
the  Ablative,  regularly  so  with  Cardinal  numbers  and  quidam ;  as,  — 
fldelissimus  de  servis,  the  most  trusty  of  the  slaves; 

quidam  ex  amicis,  certain  of  his  friends ; 
unus  ex  militibus,  one  of  the  soldiers. 

b.  In  English  we  often  use  of  where  there  is  no  relation  of  whole  to  part. 
In  such  cases  the  Latin  is  more  exact,  and  does  not  use  the  Genitive ; 
as, — 

quot  VOS  estis,  how  many  of  you  are  there  ? 

trecenti  conjuravimus,  three  hundred  of  us  have  conspired  (i.e. 
we,  three  hundred  in  number). 

2.  The   Genitive   of  the   Whole    is    used   also    with    the    Nomi- 
native or  Accusative  Singular  Neuter  of  Pronouns,  or  of  Adjectives 
used  substantively ;   also  with  the  Adverbs  parum  and   satis   used 
substantively ;  as,  — 

quid  consili,  what  purpose  ? 

tantum  cibi,  so  much  food ; 

plus  auctoritatis,  more  authority ; 

minus  laboris,  less  labor ; 

satis  pecuniae,  enough  money, 

parum  industriae,  too  little  industry. 

a.  An  Adjective  of  the  second  declension  used  substantively  may  be  em- 
ployed as  a  Genitive  of  the  Whole;  as,  nib.il  bonl,  twthing  good. 

b.  But  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  agree  directly  with  the  noun  they 
limit;  as,  nihil  dulcius,  nothing  sweeter. 

3.  Occasionally  we  find  the  Genitive  of  the  Whole  dependent  upon 
Adverbs  of  place ;  as,  — 

ubi  terrarum?  ubi  gentium  ?  where  in  the  world? 

a.  By  an  extension  of  this  usage  the  Genitive  sometimes  occurs  in  depend- 
ence upon  pridie  and  postridie,  but  only  in  the  phrases  pridie 
ejus  diei,  on  the  day  before  that;  postridie  ejus  diei,  on  the  day 
after  that. 

202.  Appositional  Genitive.     The  Genitive  sometimes  has  the 
force  of  an  appositive  ;  as,  — 

iiomen  regis,  the  name  of  'king '; 
poena  mortis,  the  penalty  of  death  ; 
ars  scribendi,  the  art  of  writing. 

203.  Genitive  of  Quality.     The  Genitive  modified  by  an  Adjec- 
tive  is  used  to   denote  quality.     This   construction  presents   several 
varieties.     Thus  it  is  used  — 


The  Genitive.  137 

1 .  To  denote  some  internal  or  permanent  characteristic  of  a  person 
or  thing ;  as,  — 

vir  magnae  virtutis,  a  man  of  great  virtue ; 
ration es  ejus  modi,  considerations  of  that  sort. 

a.    Only  a  limited  number  of  Adjectives  occur  in  this  construction,  chiefly 
magnus,  maximus,  summus,  tantus,  along  with  ejus. 

2.  To  denote  measure  (breadth,  length,  etc.)  ;  as, — 

fossa  qumdecim  pedum,  a  trench  fifteen  feet  wide  (or  deep)  ; 
exsilium  decem  annorum,  an  exile  of  ten  years. 

3.  By  omission  of  preti   (price),  or  some  kindred  word,  tantl, 
quanti,   parvi,   magni,   minoris   are   used    predicatively   to    denote 
indefinite  value;   as, — 

nulla  studia  tanti  sunt,  no  studies  are  of  so  much  value ; 

magni  opera  ejus  existimata  est,  his  assistance  was  highly  esteemed. 

a.    Pluris  (not  strictly  an  adjective)  follows  the  same  analogy. 

4.  By  an  extension  of  the  notion  of  value,  quanti,  tanti,  pluris, 
and  minoris  are  also  used  with  verbs  of  buying  and  selling,  to  denote 
indefinite  price ;  as, — 

quanti  aedes  emisti,  at  how  high  a  price  did  you  purchase  the  house  f 

5.  Any  of  the  above  varieties  of  the  Genitive  of  Quality  may  be 
used  predicatively ;  as,  — 

tantae  molis  erat  Romanam  condere  gentem,  of  so  great  difficulty 
was  it  to  found  the  Roman  race. 

GENITIVE   WITH   ADJECTIVES. 

204.   The  Genitive  is  used  with  many  Adjectives  to  limit 
the  extent  of  their  application.     Thus :  — 

i.    With    Adjectives     signifying     desire,    knowledge,    familiarity, 
memory,  participation,  power,  fulness,  and  their  opposites  ;  as,  — 
studiosus  discendi,  desirous  of  learning] 
peritus  belli,  skilled  in  war] 
insuetus  laboris,  umtsed  to  toil; 

immemor  mandati  tui,  unmindful  of  your  commission ; 
plena  periculorum  est  vita,  life  is  full  of  dangers, 
a.    Some  participles  used  adjectively  also  take  the  Genitive  ;  as, — 

dilig-ens  veritatis,  fond  of  truth; 

amans  patriae,  devoted  to  ones  country. 


138  Syntax. 

2.  Sometimes  with  proprius  and  communis  ;  as, — 

viri  propria  est  fortitude,  bravery  is  characteristic  of  a  man. 
memoria  est  communis  omnium  artium,  memory  is  common  to  all 

professions. 

a.    proprius  and  communis  are  also  construed  with  the  Dative. 

3.  With  similis  the  Genitive   is  the   commoner  construction   in 
Cicero,  when  the  reference  is  to  living  objects ;  as,  — 

f  ilius  patris  simillimus  est,  the  son  is  exactly  like  his  father. 
mei  similis,  like  me ;  vestri  similis,  like  you. 

When  the  reference  is  to  things,  both  Genitive  and  Dative  occur ;  as,  — 
mors  so  mil  5  (or  somni)  similis  est,  death  is  like  sleep. 

4.  In  the  poets  and  later  prose  writers  the  use  of  the  Genitive  with  Adjectives 
is  extended  far  beyond  earlier  limits ;  as,  atrox  animl,yfera?  of  temper;  incertus 
cSnsilii,  undecided  in  purpose. 

GENITIVE   WITH   VERBS. 

205.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  the  following  classes 
of  Verbs :  — 

Me  mini,  Reminlscor,  Oblivlscor. 

206.  i.    WHEN  REFERRING  TO  PERSONS  — 

a.  memini  takes  the  Genitive  in  the  significations  /  bear  in 
mind  (memor  sum),  am  mindful  of,  or  make  mention  of; 
but  the  Accusative  in  the  signification,  / recall ;  as, — 
vivorum  memini,  I  am  mindful  of  the  living •; 
Achilles  cujus  supra  meminimus,  Achilles,  of  whom  we 

made  mention  above ; 
Sullam  memini,  f  recall  Sulla. 

b.  obliviscor  always  takes  the  Genitive ;  as,  — 

Epicuri  non  licet  oblivisci,  we  mustn't  forget  Epicurus. 

2.  WHEN  REFERRING  TO  THINGS,  memini,  reminiscor,  obli- 
viscor take  sometimes  the  Genitive,  sometimes  the  Accusative,  appar- 
ently without  difference  of  meaning ;  as,  — 

animus  praeteritorum  meminit,  the  mind  remembers  the  past ; 

meministine  nomina,  do  you  remember  the  names  ? 

reminiscere  veteris  incommodi,  remember  the  former  disaster ; 

reminiscens  acerbitatem,  remembering  the  severity. 


The  Genitive.  139 

a.     But  neuter  pronouns,  and  adjectives  used  substantively,  regularly  stand 
in  the  Accusative ;  as,  — 
haec  memim,  1 remember  this ; 
multa  remimscor,  /  remember  many  things. 

3.    The  phrase  mini  (tibi,  etc.}  in  mentem  venit,  following  the  analogy  of 
memini,  takes  the  Genitive ;  as,  — 

civium  mini  in  mentem  venit,  I  remember  the  citizens. 


Admoneo,  Commoneo,  Commonefacio. 

207.  These  verbs,  in  addition  to  an  Accusative  of  the 
person,  occasionally  take  a  Genitive  of  the  thing ;  as,  — 

te  admoneo  amicitiae  nostrae,  I  remind  you  of  our  friendship. 

a.  But  more  frequently  (in  Cicero  almost  invariably)  these  verbs  take  de 
with  the  Ablative  ;  as,  — 

de  pecunia  me  admones,  you  remind  me  of  the  money. 

b.  A  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective  used  substantively  regularly  stands  in 
the  Accusative  ;  as, — 

te  hoc  admoneo,  I  give  you  this  warning. 

Verbs  of  Judicial  Action. 

208.  i.    Verbs  of  Accusing,  Convicting,  Acquitting  take 
the  Genitive  of  the  charge ;  as,  — 

me  furti  accusat,  he  accuses  me  of  theft ; 

Verrem  avaritiae  coarguit,  he  convicts  Verres  of  avarice ; 

impietatis  absolutus  est,  he  was  acquitted  of  blasphemy. 

2.     Verbs  of  Condemning  take  — 

a.  The  Genitive  of  the  charge ;  as,  — 

pecuniae  publicae  damnatus,  condemned  (on  the  charge) 

of  embezzlement  (lit.  public  money) ; 
capitis  damnatus,  condemned  on  a  capital  charge  (lit.  on  a 

charge  involving  his  head) . 

b.  The  Ablative  of  the  penalty ;  as,  — 

capite  damnatus  est,  he  was  condemned  to  death; 

mille  nummis  damnatus  est,  he  was  condemned  (to  pay) 

a  thousand  sesterces  (lit.  by  a  thousand  sesterces,  Abl.  of 

Means). 


140  Syntax. 

3.    Note  the  phrases  :  — 

votl  darnnatus,  votl  reus,  having  attained  one  s  prayer  (lit.  condemned  on  the 

score  of  one's  vow)  ; 

de  vi,  (accused,  convicted,  etc.}  of  assault ; 
inter  sicarios,  (accused,  convicted,  etc.}  of  murder. 

Genitive  with  Impersonal  Verbs. 

209.  I.    The  Impersonate  pudet,  paenitet,  miseret,  taedet, 
piget  take    the  Accusative   of    the  person   affected,    along 
with  the  Genitive  of  the  person  or  thing  toward  zvhom  the 
feeling  is  directed  ;  as,  — 

pudet  me  tui,  I  am  ashamed  of  you  (lit.  it  shames  me  of  you)  ; 

paenitet  me  hujus  facti,  / repent  of  this  act ; 

eum  taedet  vitae,  he  is  weary  of  life] 

pauperum  te  miseret,  you  pity  the  poor.  ^/ 

a.     Instead  of  the  Genitive  of  the  thing  we  often  find  an  Infinitive  or  Neuter 
Pronoun  used  as  subject  of  the  verb.    Thus  :  — 
me  paenitet  hoc  fecisse,  /  repent  of  having  done  this ; 
me  hoc  pudet,  /  am  ashamed  of  this. 

2.    Misereor  and  miseresco  also  govern  the  Genitive  ;  as,  — 
miseremini  sociorum,  pity  the  allies. 

Interest,  Refert. 

210.  With  interest,  it  concerns,  three  points  enter  into 
consideration ;  viz.  — 

a)  the  person  concerned ; 

K)  the  thing  about  which  he  is  concerned ; 

c)  the  extent  of  his  concern. 

211.  i.   The  person  concerned  is  regularly  denoted  by 
the  Genitive  ;  as,  — 

patris  interest,  it  concerns  the  father. 

a.  But  instead  of  the  Genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns,  mei, 
tui,  etc.)  the  Latin  uses  the  Ablative  Singular  Feminine  of 
the  Possessive,  viz. :  mea,  tua,  etc. ;  as, — 

mea  interest,  it  concerns  me. 
NOTE.  —  But  the  Latin  says  omnium  nostram  interest,  //  concerns  us  all. 


The  Genitive.  141 

2.  The   thing  about   which    a    person    is    concerned   is 
denoted  — 

d)    by  a  Neuter  Pronoun  as  subject ;  as,  — 

hoc  rei  publicae  interest,  this  concerns  the  state. 

b)  by  an  Infinitive;  as, — 

omnium  interest  valere,  //  concerns  all  to  keep  well. 

c)  by  an  Indirect  Question  ;  as, — 

mea  interest  quando  venias,  /  am  concerned  as  to  when 
you  are  coming. 

3.  The  degree  of  concern  is  denoted  — 

a)    by  the  Genitive  (of  Quality)  :  magiii,  parvi,  etc  ;  as,  — 
mea  magni  interest,  it  concerns  me  greatly. 

b}   by  the  Adverbs,  magnopere,  magis,  maxime,  etc. ;  as,  — 
civium  minime  interest,  //  concerns  the  citizens  very  little. 

c)   by  the  Neuters,  multum,  plus,  minus,  etc. ;  as,  — 
multum  vestra  interest,  it  concerns  you  much. 

4.  Refert  follows  interest  in  its  construction,  except  that  it  rarely 
takes  the  Genitive  of  the  person.     Thus  :  — 

mea  refert,  it  concerns  me ; 
but  rarely  illius  refert,  it  concerns  him. 

Genitive  with  Other  Verbs. 

212.    i.    Verbs  of  Plenty  and    Want  sometimes  govern 
the  Genitive  ;  as,  — 

pecuniae  indiges,  you  need  money. 

a  These  verbs  more  commonly  take  the  Ablative  (§  214,  i)  ; 
indigeo  is  the  only  verb  which  has  a  preference  for  the 
Genitive. 

2.  Potior   though  usually   followed   by  the  Ablative,  sometimes 
takes  the  Genitive,  almost  always  so  in  Sallust ;  and  regularly  in  the 
phrase  :  potiri  rerum,  to  get  control  of  affairs. 

3.  In  poetry  some  verbs  take  the  Genitive  in  imitation  of  the  Greek;  as, — 

desine  querellarum,  cease  your  complaints  ; 
operum  soluti,  freed  from  their  tasks. 


142  Syntax. 

THE   ABLATIVE. 

213.  The  Latin  Ablative  unites  in  itself  three  cases  which 
were  originally  distinct  both  in  form  and  in  meaning ;  viz.  — 

The  Ablative  or  from-case. 
The  Instrumental  or  with-case. 
The  Locative  or  where-case. 

The  uses  of  the  Latin  Ablative  accordingly  fall  into 
Genuine  Ablative  uses,  Instrumental  uses,  and  Locative 
uses. 

GENUINE   ABLATIVE    USES. 
Ablative  of  Separation. 

214.  The  Ablative  of  Separation  is  construed  sometimes 
with,  sometimes  without,  a  preposition. 

i.  The  following  words  regularly  take  the  Ablative  without  a 
preposition :  — 

a)  The  Verbs  of  freeing :  libero,  solvo,  levo  ; 

b)  The  Verbs  of  depriving:   privo,  spolio,   exuo,   fraudo, 
nudo ; 

c)  The  Verbs  of  lacking  •  egeo,  careo,  vaco  ; 

d)  The    corresponding    Adjectives,    liber,    inanis,    vacuus, 
iiudus,  and  some  others  of  similar  meaning. 

Thus :  - 

curls  liberatus,  freed  from  cares  ; 
Caesar  hostes  armis  exuit,  Caesar  stripped  the  enemy  of 

their  arms ; 

caret  sensu  communi,  he  lacks  common  sense ; 
auxilid  eget,  he  needs  help ; 
bonorum  vita  vacua  est  metu,  the  life  of  the  good  is  free 

from  fear. 

NOTE  i.  —  Yet  Adjectives  and  libero  may  take  the  preposition  ab,  —  regu- 
larly so  with  the  Ablative  of  persons ;  as,  — 

urbem  a  tyranno  liberarunt,  they  freed  the  city  from  the  tyrant. 
NOTE  2.  — Indigeo  usually  takes  the  Genitive.     See  §  212,  i,  a. 


The  Ablative.  143 

2.  Of  Verbs  signifying  to  keep  from,  to  remove ',  to  withdraw,  some 
take  the  preposition,  others  omit  it.     The  same  Verb  often  admits  both 
constructions.     Examples :  — 

abstinere  cibo,  to  abstain  from  food '; 

hostes  fmibus  prohibuerunt,  they  kept  the  enemy  from  their  borders  ; 

praedones  ab  insula  prohibuit,  he  kept  the  pirates  from  the  island. 

3.  Other  Verbs  of  separation  usually  take  the  Ablative  with  a  Prep- 
osition, particularly  compounds  of  dis-  and  se-  ;  as,  — 

dissentio  a  te,  /  dissent  from  yott; 

secernantur  a  nobis,  let  them  be  separated  from  us. 

Ablative  of  Source. 

215.  The  Ablative  of  Source  is  used  with  the  participles 
natus  and  ortus  (in  poetry  also  with  editus,  satus,  and  some 
others),  to  designate  parentage  or  station  ;  as,  — 

Jove  natus,  son  of  Jupiter ; 

summo  loco  natus,  high-born  (lit.  born  from  a  very  high  place) ; 

nobili  genere  ortus,  born  of  a  noble  family. 

<i 

1 .  Pronouns  regularly  (nouns  rarely)  take  ex  ;  as,  — 

ex  me  natus,  sprung  from  me. 

2.  To  denote  remoter  descent,  ortus  ab,  or  oriundus  (with  or 
without  ab),  is  used  ;  as, — 

ab  Ulixe  oriundus,  descended  from  Ulysses. 

Ablative  of  Agent. 

216.  The  Ablative  accompanied  by  a  (ab)  is  used  with 
passive  verbs  to  denote  the  personal  agent ;  as,  — 

a  Caesare  accusatus  est,  he  was  arraigned  by  Caesar. 

1 .  Collective  nouns  referring  to  persons,  and  abstract  nouns  when 
personified,  may  be  construed  as  the  personal  agent.     Thus  :  — 
hostes  a  f ortuna  deserebantur,  the  enemy  were  deserted  by  Fortune ; 
a  multitudine  hostium  montes  tenebantur,  the  mountains  were  held 

by  a  multitude  of  the  enemy. 

2.  Names  of  animals  sometimes  admit  the  same  construction.     Thus  :  — 

a  canibus  laniatus  est,  he  was  torn  to  pieces  by  dogs. 


1 44  Syntax. 

Ablative  of  Comparison. 

217.  i.    The  Ablative  is  often  used  with  Comparatives 
in  the  sense  of  than  ;  as,  — 

melle  dulcior,  sweeter  than  honey ; 

patria  mihi  vita  carior  est,  my  country  is  dearer  to  me  than  life. 

i.  This  construction,  as  a  rule,  occurs  only  as  a  substitute  for  quam 
(than)  with  the  Nominative  or  Accusative.  ,  In  other  cases  quam  must 
be  used  ;  as,  — 

tui  studiosior  sum  quam  illms,  /  am  fonder  of  you  than  of  him. 
Studiosior  illo  would  have  meant,  I  am  fonder  of  you  than  he  is. 

3.  Plus,  minus,  amplius,  longius  are  often  employed  as  the  equiv- 
alents of  plus  quam,  minus  quam,  etc.     Thus  :  — 

amplius  viginti  urbes  incenduntur,  more  than   twenty  cities   are 

fired] 
minus  quinque  milia  processit,  he  advanced  less  than  five  miles. 

4.  Note  the  use  of  opinions  with  Comparatives;  as, — 

opinione  celerius  venit,  he  comes  more  quickly  than  expected  (lit.  than  opinion}. 

INSTRUMENTAL   USES    OF   THE   ABLATIVE. 
Ablative  of  Means. 

218.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  means  or  instru- 
ment ;  as,  — 

Alexander  sagitta  vulneratus  est,  Alexander  was  wounded  by  an 
arrow. 

There  are  the  following  special  varieties  of  this  Ablative :  — 

i .    Utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vescor,  and  their  compounds  take 

the  Ablative ;  as,  — 

divitiis  utitur,  he   uses  his   wealth   (lit.  he  benefits  himself  by  his 
wealth) ; 

vita  fruitur,  he  etijoys  life  (lit.  he  enjoys  himself  by  life)  ; 

munere  fungor,  I  perform  my  duty  (lit.  I  busy  myself  with  duty}  ; 

carne  vescuntur,  they  eat  flesh  (lit.  feed  themselves  by  means  of)  ; 

urbe  potitus  est,  he  got  possession  of  the  city  (lit.  made  himself  power- 
ful by  the  city) . 

a.     Potior  sometimes  governs  the  Genitive.     See  §  212,  2. 


The.  Ablative.  145 

2.    With  opus  est  (rarely  usus  est),  there  is  need]  as, — 
duce  nobis  opus  est,  we  need  a  leader. 


a.  A  Neuter  Pronoun  or  Adjective  often  stands  as  subject  with 
opus  as  predicate.     Thus  :  — 

hoc  mihi  opus  est,  this  is  necessary  for  me. 

b.  An  ordinary  substantive  rarely  stands  as  subject.     Thus  dux 
nobis  opus  est  is  a  rare  form  of  expression. 

V         c.     Note  the  occasional  use  of  a  perfect  passive  participle  with   opus 
est;  as, — 

opus  est  properato,  there  is  need  of  haste. 

3.  With  nitor  and  fretus  ;  as, — 

nititur  hasta,  he  rests  on  a  spear  (lit.  supports  himself  by  a  spear)  ; 
fretus  virtute,  relying  on  virtue  (lit.  supported  by  virtue). 

4.  With  contineri,  consistere,  constare,  consist  of]  as, — 
nervis  et  ossibus  continentur,  they  consist  of  sinews  and  bones  (lit. 

they  are  held  together  by  sinews  and  bones)  ; 

mortal!  consistit  corpore  mundus,  the  world  consists  of  mortal  sub- 
stance (lit.  holds  together  by  means  of,  etc.). 

5.  With  miscere  and  mutare  ;  as, — 

mella  vino  miscere,  to  mix  honey  with  wine ; 

pacem  be!15  mutant,  they  change  peace  for  war  (lit.  with  war). 

6.  In  expressions  of  the  type  :  — 

quid  hoc  homine  facias,  what  can  you  do  with  this  man  ? 
quid  mea  Tulliola  fiet,  what  will  become  of  my  dear  Tullia  ?  (lit.  what 
will  be  done  with  her  ?) 

7.  In  the  following  special  phrases  at  variance  with  the  ordinary 
English  idiom :  — 

proelio  contendere,  vincere,  to  contend,  conquer  in  battle] 
proelio  lacessere,  to  provoke  to  battle ; 
assuetus  (assuefactus)  labore,  accustomed  to  toil ; 
curru  vehi,  to  ride  in  a  chariot ; 
pedibus  ire,  to  go  on  foot ; 

tibiis  (fidibus)  canere,  to  play  the  flute  (lyre); 
pila  ludere,  to  play  ball ; 
castris  se  tenere,  to  keep  in  camp ; 
and  some  others. 
L 


1 46  Syntax. 

8.  With  Verbs  of^/&#£*and  Adjectives  of  plenty ;  as, — 

f  oss as  virgultis  complerunt,  they  filled  the  trenches  with  brush, 
a.     But  plenus  more  commonly  takes  the  Genitive.     See  §  204,  i. 

9.  Under   <  Means '   belongs    also    the   Ablative    of    the   way   by 
which;  as, — 

vinum  Tiber!  devectum,  wine  brought  down  (by)  the  Tiber. 

10.  The  means  may  be  a  person  as  well  as  a  thing.     Thus  :  — 

militibus  a  lacu  Lexnanno  ad  montem  Juram  murum  perdu cit,  with 
(i.e.  by  means  of)  his  troops  he  runs  a  wall  from  Lake  Geneva  to  Mt.  Jura. 

Ablative  of  Cause. 

219.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  cause ;  as,  — 
multa  gloriae  cupiditate  fecit,  he  did  many  things  on  accoiint  of  his 

love  of  glory. 

1 .  So  especially  with  verbs  denoting  mental  states ;  ^.s,  delector, 
gaudeo,   laetor,    glSrior,    fido,    confido.     Also   with    ccntentus  ; 
as,— 

fortuna  amici  gaudeS,  /  rejoice  at  the  fortune  of  my  friend  (i.e.  on 

account  of  if)  ; 

victoria  sua  gloriantur,  they  exult  over  their  victory ; 
natiira  loci   confidebant,    they    trusted  in  the  character    of  their 

country  (lit.  were  confident  on  account  of  the  character). 

a.     fido  and  confido  always  take  the  Dative  of  the  person  (§  187,  II.  a); 
sometimes  the  Dative  of  the  thing. 

2.  As  Ablatives  of  Cause  are  to  be  reckoned  also  such  Ablatives 
as  jussu,  by  order  of,  injussu,  rogatu,  etc. 

Ablative  of  Manner. 

220.  The   Ablative  with  cum   is   used  to  denote  man- 
ner ;  as,  — 

cum  gravitate  loquitur,  he  speaks  with  dignity. 

1 .  The  preposition  may  be  omitted  when  the  Ablative  is  modified 
by  an  adjective ;  as,  — 

magna  gravitate  loquitur,  he  speaks  with  great  dignity. 

2.  The  preposition  is  regularly  omitted  in  the  expressions  jure, 
injuria,  joco,  vi,  fraude,  voluntate. 


The  Ablative.  147 

3.  A  special  variety  of  the  Ablative  of  Manner  denotes  that  in  ac- 
cordance with  which  or  in  pursuance  of  which  anything  is  or  is  done. 
It  is  generally  used  without  a  preposition.  Thus  :  — 

mea  sententia,  according  to  my  opinion  ; 

suis  moribus,  in  accordance  with  their  custom  ; 

sua  sponte,  voluntarily;  of  their  own  accord; 

ea  condicione,  on  these  terms. 

Ablative  of  Attendant  Circumstance. 

221.  The  Ablative  is  often  used  to  denote  an  attendant 
circumstance  of  an  action  or  an  event ;  as,  — 

boms  auspiciis,  under  good  auspices ; 

iiiilla  est  altercatio  clamoribus  umquam  habit  a  majoribus,  no 

debate  was  ever  held  under  circumstances  of  greater  applause ; 
exstinguitur  ingenti  luctu  provinciae,  he  dies  under  circumstances 

of  great  grief  on  the  part  of  the  province ; 
longo  intervallo  sequitur,  he  follows  at  a  great  distance. 

Ablative  of  Accompaniment. 

222.  The  Ablative  with  cum  is  used  to  denote  accompa- 
niment ;  as,  — 

cum  comitibus  profectus  est,  he  set  out  with  his  attendants  ; 
cum  febri  rediit,  he  returned  with  a  fever. 

i.    In  military  expressions  the  Ablative  may  stand  without  cum 
when  modified  by  any  adjective  except  a  numeral ;  as,  — 
omnibus  copiis,  ingenti  exercitu,  magna  maiiu ;  but  always  cum 
exercitu,  cum  duabus  legionibus. 

Ablative  of  Degree  of  Difference. 

223.  The  Ablative  is  used  with  comparatives  and  words 
involving  comparison  (as  post,  ante,  infra,  supra ;  superare, 
surpass)  to  denote  the  degree  of  difference  ;  as,  — 

dimidio  minor,  smaller  by  a  half] 
tribus  pedibus  altior,  three  feet  higher  ; 
paulo  post,  a  little  afterwards ; 

quo  plura  hab emus',  eo  cupimus  ampliora,  the  more  we  have,  the 
more  we  want. 


148  Syntax. 

Ablative  of  Quality. 

224.  The  Ablative,  modified  by  an  adjective,  is  used  to 
denote  quality  ;  as,  — 

puella  eximia  forma,  a  girl  of  exceptional  beauty ; 
vir  singular!  industria,  a  man  of  singular  industry. 

1 .  The  Ablative  of  Quality  may  also  be  used  predicatively  ;  as,  — 

est  magna  prudeiitia,  he  is  (a  man)  of  great  'wisdom ; 
bond  animo  sunt,  they  are  of  good  courage. 

2.  In  place  of  the  Adjective  we  sometimes  find  a  limiting  Genitive ;  as,  — 
sunt  specie  et  colore  tauri,  they  are  of  the  appearance  and  color  of  a  bull. 

3.  In  all  numerical  designations  of  Tveight,  value,  dimension,  etc.,  the  Genitive 
of  Quality  takes  the  place  of  the  Ablative  of  Quality.     See  §  203.  2. 

Ablative  of  Price. 

225.  With  verbs  of  buying  and  selling,  price  is  desig- 
nated by  the  Ablative  ;  as,  — 

servum  quinque  minis  emit,  he  bought  the  slave  for  five  minae. 

1 .  The  Ablatives  magiio,  plurimS,  parvo,  miiiimo  (by  omission 
of  pretio)  are  used  to  denote  indefinite  price ;  as,  — 

aedes  magno  vendidit,  he  sold  the  house  for  a  high  price. 

2.  For  the  Genitive  of  Indefinite  Price,  see  §  203,  4. 

Ablative  of  Specification. 

226.  The  Ablative  of   Specification  is  used  to  denote 
that  in  respect  to  which  something  is  or  is  done ;  as,  — 

Helvetii  omnibus  Gallis  virtute  praestabant,  the  Helvetians  sur- 
passed all  the  Gauls  in  valor ; 
pede  claudus,  lame  in  his  foot. 

1 .  Note  the  phrases :  — 

major  iiatu,  older  (lit.  greater  as  to  age) ; 
minor  iiatu,  younger. 

2.  Here    belongs    the    use    of   the    Ablative    with    dignus    and 
indignus ;    as,  — 

digni  honore,  worthy  of  honor  ; 
fide  indignT,  unworthy  of  confidence. 


The  Ablative.  149 

Ablative  Absolute. 

227.  The  Ablative  Absolute  is  grammatically  inde- 
pendent of  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  In  its  commonest 
form  it  consists  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  limited  by  a 
participle ;  as,  — 

urbe  capta,  Aeneas  fugit,  when  the  city  had  been  captured,  Aeneas 
fled  (lit.  the  city  having  been  captured). 

1.  Instead  of  a  participle  we  often  find  an  adjective  or  noun  ;  as, — 
vivo  Caesare  res  publica  salva  erat,  while  Caesar  was  alive  the 

state  was  safe  (lit.  Caesar  being  alive)  ; 
Tarquinio  rege,  Pythagoras  in  Italiam  vgnit,  in  the  reign  of  Tar- 

quin  Pythagoras  came  into  Italy  (lit.  Tarquin  being  king) . 
Cn.  Fompejo,  M.  Crasso  consulibus,  in  the  consulship  of  Gnaeus 

Pompey  and  Marcus  Crass  us. 

2.  The   Ablative   Absolute   is   generally  used   in  Latin   where  in 
English  we  employ  subordinate  clauses.     Thus  the  Ablative  Absolute 
may  correspond  to  a  clause  denoting  — 

a)  Time,  as  in  the  foregoing  examples. 

b)  Condition;  as,— 

omnes  virtutes  jacent,  voluptate  dominante,  all  virtues 
lie  prostrate,  if  pleasure  is  master. 

c)  Opposition  ;  as,  — 

perditis  omnibus  rebus,  virtus  se  sustentare  potest, 

though  everything  else  is  lost,  yet  Virtue  can  maintain 
herself. 

d)  Cause  ;  as,  — 

nullo  adversante  regnum  obtinuit,  since  no  one  opposed 
him,  he  secured  the  throne. 

e)  Attendant  circumstance  ;  as,  — 

passis  palmis  pacem  petiverunt,  with  hands  outstretched 
they  sued  for  peace. 

3.  An  Infinitive  or  clause  sometimes  occurs  in  the  Ablative  Abso- 
lute construction  in  Livy  and  later  writers  ;  as,  — 

audito  eum  fugisse,  when  it  was  heard  that  he  had  fled. 

4.  A  noun  or  pronoun  stands  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  construction 
only  when  it  denotes  a  different  person  or  thing  from  any  in  the  clause 
in  which  it  stands.     Exceptions  to  this  principle  are  extremely  rare. 


150  Syntax. 

LOCATIVE  USES  OF  THE  ABLATIVE. 
Ablative  of  Place. 

A.   Place  where. 

228.  The  place  where  is  regularly  denoted  by  the  Ab- 
lative with  a  preposition  ;  as,  — 

in  urbe  habitat,  he  dwells  in  the  city. 

i.    But   certain   words   stand    in    the   Ablative   without    a    prepo- 
sition ;  viz.  — 

a)  Names    of    towns,  —  except    Singulars    of   the    First    and 
Second  Declensions  ;  as,  — 

Carthagine,  at  Carthage] 
Athenis,  at  Athens ; 
Veils,  at  Veil. 

b)  The  general  words  loco,  locis,  parte,  and  any  word  when 
modified  by  totus  ;  as,  — 

hoc  loco,  at  this  place] 

totis  castris,  in  the  whole  camp. 

c)  The  special  words  :  f  oris,  out  of  doors ;  ruri,  in  the  country ; 
terra  marique,  on  land  and  sea. 

d)  The  poets  freely  omit  the  preposition  with  any  word  denot- 
ing place ;  as,  — 

stant  lit  ore  puppes,  the  ships  rest  on  the  beach. 

B.    Place  from  which. ^ 

229.  Place    from    which    is   regularly    denoted   by   the 
Ablative  with  a  preposition;  as, — 

ab  Italia  profectus  est,  he  set  out  from  Italy] 
ex  urbe  rediit,  he  returned  from  the  city. 

i.     But    certain    words    stand    in    the   Ablative    without    a   prepo- 
sition ;   viz.  — 

a)    Names  of  towns  and  small  islands  ;  as,  — 
Roma  profectus  est,  he  set  out  from  Rome] 
Rhodo  revertit,  he  rettirned  from  Rhodes. 

1  Place  from  which,  though  strictly  a  Genuine  Ablative  use,  is  treated  here  for 
sake  of  convenience.  > 


The  Ablative.  151 

b)  domo,  from  home ;  rure,  from  the  country. 

c)  Freely  in  poetry  ;  as,  — 

Italia  decessit,  he  withdrew  from  Italy. 

2.    With  names  of  towns,  ab  is  used  to  mean  from  the  vicinity  of, 
or  to  denote  the  point  whence  distance  is  measured;  as, — 

a  Gergovia  discessit,  he  withdrew  from  the  vicinity  of  Gergovia. 
a  Roma  X  milia  aberat,  he  was  ten  miles  distant  from  Rome. 

Urbe  and  oppido,  when  standing  in  apposition  with  a  town  name, 
are  accompanied  by  a  preposition  ;  as,  — 

Curibus  ex  oppido  Sabmorum,  from  Cures,  a  town  of  the  Sabines. 

Ablative  of  Time. 

A.    Time  at  which. 

230.  The    Ablative    is    used    to    denote    the    time    at 
which;   as, — 

quarta  hora  mortuus  est,  he  died  at  the  fourth  hour ; 
anno  septuagesimo  consul  creatus,  elected  consul  in  his  seventieth 
year. 

1.  Any  word  denoting  a  period  of  time  may  stand  in  this  con- 
struction, particularly  annus,  ver,  aestas,  hiems,  dies,  nox,  hora, 
comitia  (Election  Day),  ludi  (the  Games),  etc. 

2.  Words   not   denoting  time   require   the  preposition  in,  unless 
accompanied  by  a  modifier.     Thus  :  — 

in  pace,  in  peace-,  in  bello,  in  war-, 

but  secundS  bello  Punico,  in  the  second  Punic  War. 

3.  Expressions  like  in  eo  tempore,  in  summa  senectute  take 

the  preposition  because  they  denote  situation  rather  than  time. 

B.   Time  within  which. 

231.  Time   within  which    is    denoted   by  the  Ablative 
either  with  or  without  a  preposition  ;  as,  — 

Stella  Saturni  triginta  annis  cursum  conficit,  the  planet  Saturn 

completes  its  orbit  within  thirty  years ; 
ter  in  anno,  thrice  in  the  course  of  the  year. 

i.     Occasionally  the  Ablative  denotes  duration  of  time  ;  as, — 
biennio  prosperas  res  habuit ,  for  two  years  he  had  a  prosperous  administration. 


152  Syntax, 


THE   LOCATIVE. 

232.    The   Locative  case  occurs  only  in  the  following 
words :  — 

1 .  Regularly  in  the  Singular  of  names  of  towns  and  small  islands 
of  the  first  and  second  declensions,  to  denote  the  place  in  which ;  as,— 

Romae,  at  Rome ;  Corinthi,  at  Corinth  ; 

Rhodi,  at  Rhodes. 

2.  In  the  following  special  forms  :  — 

domi,  at  home ;  humi,  on  the  ground ; 

belli,  in  war ;  militiae,  in  war ; 

vesperl,  at  evening;  her!, yesterday. 

3.  Note   the   phrase  pendere   aiiimi.   lit.   to  be  in   suspense   in 
one's  mind. 

4.  Consonant  Stems  occasionally  form  a  Locative  in  -I ;  as,  — 
Lacedaemoni,  at  Sparta ;         Carthagini,  at  Carthage ; 

Tiburi,  at  J^ibur. 


CHAPTER   III.  —  Syntax  of  Adjectives. 

233.    i.    The  word  with  which  an  Adjective  agrees  is 
called  its  Subject. 

2.  Attributive  and  Predicate  Adjectives.     An  Attribu- 
tive Adjective  is  one  that  limits  its  subject  directly ;  as,  — 

vir  sapiens,  a  wise  man ; 

A  Predicate  Adjective  is  one  that  limits  its  subject  through 
the  medium  of  a  verb  (usually  esse) ;  as,  — 

vir  est  sapiens,  the  man  is  wise ; 

vir  videbatur  sapiens,  the  man  seemed  wise ; 

vir  judicatus  est  sapiens,  the  man  was  judged  wise. 

3.  Participles  and  Adjective  Pronouns  have  the  construction   of 
Adjectives. 


Agreement  of  Adjectives.  153 

AGREEMENT    OF   ADJECTIVES. 

234.  Agreement  with  One  Noun.     When  an  Adjective 
limits  one  noun   it   agrees  with    it   in   Gender,    Number, 
and  Case. 

1 .  Two  Adjectives  in  the  Singular  may  limit  a  noun  in  the  Plural ; 
as,  prima  et  vicesima  legioues,  the  first  and  twentieth  legions. 

2.  A  Predicate  Adjective  may  stand  in  the  Neuter  when  its  Subject 
is  Masculine  or  Feminine  and  denotes  a  thing ;  as,  — 

mors  est  miserum,  death  is  a  wretched  thing. 

235.  Agreement  with  Two  or  More  Nouns. 

A.  AGREEMENT   AS   TO   NUMBER. 

1.  When  the  Adjective  is  Attributive,  it  regularly  agrees 
in  number  with  the  nearest  noun  ;  as,  — 

pater  tuus  et  mater,  your  father  and  mother; 

eadem  alacritas  et  studium,  the  same  eagerness  and  zeal. 

2.  When  the  Adjective  is   Predicative,  it  is  regularly 
Plural ;  as,  — 

pax  et  concordia  sunt  pulchrae,  peace  and  concord  are  glorious. 

B.  AGREEMENT   AS   TO   GENDER. 

1.  When  the  Adjective  is  Attributive,  it  regularly  agrees 
in  gender  with  the  nearest  noun  ;  as,  — 

res  operae  multae  ac  laboris,  a  matter  of  much  effort  and  labor. 

2.  When  the  Adjective  is  Predicative  — 

a)    If  the  nouns  are  of  the  same  gender,  the  Adjective  agrees 
with  them  in  gender;  as, — 

pater  et  filius  capti  sunt,  father  and  son  were  captured. 
Yet  with  feminine  abstract  nouns,  the  Adjective  is  more 
frequently  Neuter ;  as,  — 

stultitia  et  timiditas  fugienda  sunt,/0//j/  and  cowardice 
must  be  shunned. 


1 54  Syntax. 

b)  If  the  nouns  are  of  different  gender ;  then,  — 

a)    In  case  they  denote  persons,  the  Adjective  is  Mascu- 
line ;  as,  — 

pater  et  mater  mortui  sunt,  the  father  and  mother  have 
died. 

ft)    In  case   they  denote   things,  the  Adjective   is   Neu- 
ter ;  as,  — 

hondres  et  victoriae  fortuita  sunt,  honors  and  victories 
are  accidental. 

y)    In   case  they  include  both   persons   and  things,  the 
Adjective  is,  — 

oa)    Sometimes  Masculine  ;  as,  — 

domus,  uxor,  liberi  invent!  sunt,  home,  wife,  and  children 
are  secured. 

/3/3)    Sometimes  Neuter ;  as,  — 

parentes,  Iiber5s,  fratres  villa  habere,  to  hold  parents, 
children,  brothers,  cheap. 

yy)    Sometimes  it  agrees  with  the  nearest  noun ;  as,  — 
populi  provinciaeque  liberatae  suut,  nations  and  prov- 
inces were  liberated. 

c)  Construction  according  to  Sense.     Sometimes  an  Ad- 
jective does  not  agree  with  a  noun  according  to  strict  gram- 
matical form,  but  according  to  sense  ;  as,  — 

pars  bestiis  abject!  sunt,  part  (of  the  men)  were  thrown, 
to  beasts. 


ADJECTIVES   USED    SUBSTANTIVELY. 

236.  i.  PLURAL  ADJECTIVES  USED  SUBSTANTIVELY. 
Adjectives  are  quite  freely  used  as  Substantives  in  the 
Plural.  The  Masculine  denotes  persons;  the  Neuter 
denotes  things ;  as,  — 

docti,  scholars ;  parva,  small  things ; 

mail,  the  wicked;  magna,  great  things ; 

Graeci,  the  Greeks ;  utilia,  useful  things ; 

nostri,  our  men. 


Adjectives  used  Substantively.  155 

2.  Neuter  Plural  Adjectives  thus  used  are  confined  mainly  to  the 
Nominative  and  Accusative  cases.  Such  forms  as  magiiorum,  om- 
nium ;  magnis,  omnibus,  would  ordinarily  lead  to  ambiguity ;  yet 
where  there  is  no  ambiguity,  they  sometimes  occur ;  as,  — 

parva  componere  magnis,  to  compare  small  things  with  great. 
Otherwise  the  Latin  says :  magnarum  rerum,  magnis  rebus,  etc. 

237.  SINGULAR  ADJECTIVES  USED  SUBSTANTIVELY.    Ad- 
jectives are  less  freely  used  as  Substantives  in  the  Sin- 
gular than  in  the  Plural. 

1 .  Masculine  Adjectives  occur  only  occasionally  in  this  use  ;  as,  — 
probus  invidet  nemini,  the  honest  man  envies  nobody. 

a.  Usually  vir,  homo,  or  some  similar  word  is  employed  ;  as,  — 

homo  doctus,  a  scholar ; 
vir  Rdmanus,  a  Roman. 

b.  But  when  limited  by  a  pronoun  any  adjective  may  be  so 
used ;  as,  — 

hie  doctus,  this  scholar; 

doctus  quidam,  a  certain  scholar. 

2.  Neuters  are  likewise  infrequent;  as, — 

verum,  truth ; 
ftotoaarL,  just  ice ; 

honestum,  virtue. 

a.    This  substantive  use  of  Neuter  Singulars  is  commonest  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  Genitive  of  the  Whole,  and  after  Prepositions ;  as,  — 
aliquid  veri,  something  true ; 
nihil  novi,  nothing  new  ; 
in  medio,  m  the  midst. 

238.  From  Adjectives  which,  like  the  above,  occasionally  admit  the 
substantive  use,  must  be  carefully  distinguished  certain  others  which 
have  become  nouns  ;  as,  — 

adversarius,  opponent ;  hiberna,  winter  quarters ; 

aequalis,  contemporary  ;  propinquus,  relative ; 

amicus,  friend ;  socius,  partner ; 

cognatus,  kinsman  ;  sod  alls,  comrade ; 

vicinus,  neighbor;  etc. 


156  Syntax. 

ADJECTIVES    WITH    THE   FORCE    OF   ADVERBS. 

239.  The  Latin  often  uses  an  Adjective  where  the  Eng- 
lish idiom  employs  an  Adverb  or  an  adverbial  phrase ;  as,  — 

senatus  frequens  convenit,  the  senate  assembled  in  great  numbers ; 
fuit  assiduus  mecum,  he  was  constantly  with  me. 

COMPARATIVES    AND    SUPERLATIVES. 

240.  i.   The  Comparative  often  corresponds  to  the  English  Positive 
with  *  rather  J  *  somewhat]  etc. ;  as,  — 

senectus  est  loquacior,  old  age  is  rather  talkative. 

2.  So    the    Superlative    often    corresponds    to    the    Positive  with 
'very';  as, — 

vir  f ortissimus,  a  very  brave  man . 

3.  Strengthening  Words.     Vel  and  quam  are  often  used  with 
the  Superlative  as  strengthening  particles,  vel  with  the  force  of  '  very] 

.  and  quam  with  the  force  of  '  as  possible ' ;  as,  — 
vel  maximus,  the  very  greatest ; 
quam  maximae  copiae,  as  great  forces  as  possible. 

4.  Phrases  of  the  type  '  more  rich  than  brave '  regularly  take  the  Comparative 
in  both  members ;  as,  — 

exercitus  erat  ditior  quam  fortior,  the  army  was  more  rich  than  brave. 

OTHER   PECULIARITIES. 

241.  i .   Certain  Adjectives  may  be  used  to  denote  a  part  of  an  object, 
chiefly  primus,  extremus,  summus,  medius,  infimus,  imus  ;  as,  — 

summus  mons,  the  top  of  the  mountain  ; 
extrema  hieme,  in  the  last  part  of  the  winter. 

i.    Prior,  primus,  ultimus,  and  postremus  are  frequently  equiva- 
lent to  a  relative  clause  ;  as,  — 

primus  earn  vldi,  /  was  the  first  who  saw  her ; 
ultimus  decessit,  he  was  the  last  who  ^withdrew. 

3.    When  multus  and  another  adjective  both  limit  the  same  noun, 
et  is  generally  used ;  as, — 

multae  et  magnae  cogitationes,  many  (and)  great  thoughts. 


Personal  Pronouns. — Possessive  Pronouns.         157 
CHAPTER    IV.  —  Syntax  of  Pronouns. 

PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

242.  i.    The   Personal  Pronouns  as  subjects  of  verbs 
are,  as  a  rule,  not  expressed  except  for  the  purpose  of 
emphasis,  contrast,  or  clearness.     Thus  ordinarily  :  — 

video,  I  see]  axnat,  he  loves. 

But  ego  te  video,  et  tu  me  vides,  /  see  you,  and  you  see  me 

2.  The  Genitives  mei,  tui,  nostri,  vestri  are  used  only  as  Objective 
Genitives ;  nostrum  and  vestrum  as  Genitives  of  the  Whole.    Thus :  — 

memor  tui,  mindful  of  you ; 
desiderium  vestri,  longing 'for  you ; 
nemo  vestrum,  no  one  of  you. 

a.  But  nostrum  and  vestrum  are  regularly  used  in  place  of  the  Pos- 
sessive in  the  phrases  omnium^nostr^m,  omnium  vestrum; 
as, — 

fortuna  omnium  nostrum,  the  fortune  of  us  all. 

3.  When  two  Verbs  govern  the  same  object,  the  Latin  does  not 
use  a  pronoun  with  the  second,  as  is  the  rule  in  English.     Thus  :  — 
virtus  amicitias  conciliat  et  conservat,  virtue  establishes  friend- 
ships and  maintains  them  (not  eas  conservat). 

POSSESSIVE   PRONOUNS. 

243.  i.    The   Possessive   Pronouns,   as  a  rule,   are   not 
employed  except  for  the  purpose  of  clearness.     Thus :  — 

patrem  amo,  /  love  my  father , 

de  filii  morte  flebas, /#//  wept  for  the  death  of  your  son. 
But  — 

de  morte  filii  mei  flebas,  you  wept  for  the  death  of  my  son. 

a.    When  expressed  merely  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  the  pos- 
sessive usually  stands  after  its  noun ;  but  in  order  to  indi- 
cate emphasis  or  contrast,  it  precedes  ;  as,  — 
sua  manu  liberos  occidit,  with  his  own  hand  he  slew  his 

children ; 
mea  quidem  sententia,  in  my  opinion  at  least. 


158  Syntax. 

2.  Sometimes  the  Possessive  Pronouns  are  used  with  the  force  of 
an  Objective  Genitive  ;  as, — 

metus  vester,  fear  of  you ; 
dSsiderium  tuum,  longing  for  you. 

3.  For  special  emphasis,  the  Latin  employs  ipsius  or  ipsdrum,  in 
apposition  with  the  Genitive  idea  implied  in  the  Possessive;  as, — 

mea  ipsius  opera,  by  my  own  help  ; 
nostra  ipsorum  opera,  by  our  own  help ; 

a.     So  sometimes  other  Genitives;  as, — 

mea  unius  opera,  by  the  assistance  of  me  alone. 

REFLEXIVE   PRONOUNS. 

244.    i.    The  Reflexive  Pronoun  se  and  the  Possessive 
Reflexive  suus  have  a  double  use:  — 

1.  They  may  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  clause  (either  principal  or 
subordinate)  in  which  they  stand,  —  <  Direct  Reflexives ' ;  as,  — 

se  amant,  they  love  themselves ; 

suos  amicSs  adjuvat,  he  helps  his  own  friends] 

eum  oravi,  ut  se  servaret,  /  besought  him  to  save  himself. 

II.    They  may  stand  in  a  subordinate  clause  and  refer  to  the  sub- 
ject of  the  principal  clause,  —  *  Indirect  Reflexives ' ;  as,  — 
me  oravit  ut  se  defenderem,  he  besought  me  to  defend  him  (lit.  thai 

f  defend  himself)  , 
me  oraveruiit,  ut  fortunarum  suarum  defeiisionem  susciperem, 

they  besought  me  to  undertake  the  defense  of  their  fortunes. 

a.  The  Indirect  Reflexive  is  mainly  restricted  to  those  clauses 
which  express  the  thought,  not  of  the  author,  but  of  the  sub- 
ject of  the  principal  clause. 

2.  The  Genitive  sui  is  regularly  employed,  like  mei  and  tuT,  as  an 
Objective  Genitive,  e.g.  oblitus  sui,  forgetful  of  himself]  but  it  occa- 
sionally occurs  —  particularly  in  post- Augustan  writers  —  in  place  of  the 
Possessive  suus  ;  as,  fruitur  fama  sui,  he  enjoys  his  own  fame. 

3.  Se  and  suus  are  sometimes  used  in  the  sense,  one's  self,  one's 
own,  where  the  reference  is  not  to  any  particular  person ;  as,  — 

se  amare,  to  love  one's  self', 

suum  genium  propitiare,  to  propitiate  one's  own  genius. 


Reciprocal  Pronouns.  —  Demonstrative  Pronouns.      1 59 

4.  Suus  sometimes  occurs  in  the  meaning  his  own,  their  own,  etc., 
referring  not  to  the  subject  but  to  an  oblique  case ;  as,  — 

Hannibalem  sui  cives  e  civitate  ejgcerunt,  his  own  fellow-citizens 
drove  out  Hannibal. 

a.    This   usage   is   particularly   frequent    in    combination  with 
quisque;  as, — 
suus  quemque  error  vexat,  his  own  error  troubles  each. 

5.  The  Reflexives  for  the  first  and  second  persons  are  supplied  by 
the  oblique  cases  of  ego  and  tu  (§  85) ;  as,  — 

vos  def enditis,  you  defend  yourselves. 


RECIPROCAL   PRONOUNS. 

245.  i.  The  Latin  has  no  special  reciprocal  pronoun  (^  each  other**}, 
but  expresses  the  reciprocal  notion  by  the  phrases :  inter  n5s,  inter 
vos,  inter  se  ;  as,  — 

Belgae  obsides  inter  se  dederunt,  the  Belgae  gave  each  other  host- 
ages (lit.  among  themselves) ; 
amamus  inter  nos,  we  love  each  other ; 
Galli  inter  se  cohortati  sunt,  the  Gauls  exhorted  each  other. 

a.     Note  that  the  Object  is  not  expressed  in  sentences  of  this  type. 


DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUNS. 
Hie,  Ille,  Iste. 

246.    i.   Where  hie  and  ille  are  used  in  contrast,  hie  usually  refers 
to  the  latter  of  two  objects,  and  ille  to  the  former. 

2.  Hie  and  ille  are  often  used  in  the  sense  of  'the  following"1 ;  as, — 

Themistocles  his  verbis  epistulam  misit,  Themistocles  sent  a  letter 

(couched)  in  the  following  words ; 
illud  intellego,  omnium  ora  in  me  conversa  esse,  /  understand 

this,  that  the  faces  of  all  are  turned  toward  me. 

3.  Ille  often  means  the  famous ;  as,  Solon  ille,  the  famous  Solon. 

4.  Iste  frequently  involves  contempt ;  as,  iste  homo,  that  fellow ! 

5.  The  above  pronouns,  along  with  is,  are  usually  attracted  to  the 
gender  of  a  predicate  noun ;  as,  hie  est  honor,  meminisse  officium 
suum,  this  is  an  honor,  to  be  mindful  of  one's  duty. 


160  Syntax. 

Is. 

247.  i.    Is  often  serves  as  the  antecedent  of  the  relative  qui. 
Thus :  - 

Maximum,  eum  qui  Tarentum  recepit,  dilexi,  I  loved Maximus,  the 
man  who  retook  Tarentum. 

a.  Closely  akin  to  this  usage  is  is  in  the  sense  of  such  (  =  tails)  ; 
as,— 

non  sum  is  qui  terrear,  /  am  not  such  a  person  as  to  be 
frightened. 

b.  Note  the  phrase  id  quod,  where  id  stands  in  apposition  with 
an  entire  clause  ;  as,  — 

non  suspicabatur  (id  quod  nuiic  sentiet)  satis  multos 
testes  nobis  reliquos  esse,  he  did  not  suspect  (a  thing 
which  he  will  now  perceive)  that  we  had  witnesses  enough 
left. 

Yet  quod  alone,  without  preceding  id,  sometimes  occurs  in 

this  use. 

2.  Is  also  in  all  cases  serves  as  the  personal  pronoun  of  the  third 
person,  <  hej  '  she]  '  it,"1  '  they]  '  them.'' 

3.  When  the  English  uses  'that  ofj  'those  of  to  avoid  repetition 
of  the  noun,  the  Latin  omits  the  pronoun  ;  as,  — 

in  exercitu  Sullae  et  postea  in  CrassT  fuerat,  he  had  been  in  the 
army  of  Sulla  and  afterward  in  that  of  Crassus ; 

nullae  me  fabulae  delectant  nisi  Plauti,  no  plays  delight  me  except 
those  of  Plautus. 

4.  Note  the  phrases  et  is,  et  ea,  etc.,  in  the  sense  :  and  that  too ;  as,  — 
vincula,  et  ea  sempiterna,  imprisonment,  and  that  too  permanently. 

Idem. 

248.  i.    Idem  in  apposition  with  the  subject  or  object  often  has 
the  force  of  also,  likewise ;  as,  — 

quod  idem  mini  contigit,  which  likewise  happened  to  me  (lit.  which, 

the  same  thing)'; 
bonus  vir,  quern  eundem  sapientem  appellamus,  a  good  man,  whom 

we  call  also  wise. 

2.    For  idem  atque  (ac),  the  same  as,  see  §  341,  i,  c. 


Demonstrative  Pronouns. — Relative  Pronouns.       161 

Ipse. 

249.  i.    Ipse,  literally  self,  acquires  its  special  force  from  the  con- 
text ;  as,  — 

eo  ipso  die,  on  that  very  day ; 

ad  ipsam  ripam,  close  to  the  bank ; 

ipso  terrore,  by  mere  fright ; 

valvae  se  ipsae  aperuerunt,  the  doors  opened  of  their  own  accord] 

ipse  aderat,  he  was  present  in  person. 

2.  The  reflexive  pronouns  are  often  emphasized  by  the  addition  of 
ipse,  but  ipse  in  such  cases,  instead  of  standing  in  apposition  with  the 
reflexive,  more  commonly  agrees  with  the  subject ;  as,  — 

secum  ipsi  loquuntur,  they  talk  with  themselves ; 

se  ipse  continere  non  potest,  he  cannot  contain  himself. 

3.  Ipse  is  also  used  as  an  Indirect  Reflexive  for  the  purpose  of 
marking  a  contrast  or  avoiding  an  ambiguity ;  as,  — 

Persae  pertimuerunt  ne  Alcibiades  ab  ipsis  descisceret  et  cum 
suis  in  gratiam  rediret,  the  Persians  feared  that  Alcibiades 
would  break  with  them  and  become  reconciled  with  his  countrymen. 

ea  molestissime  ferre  debent  homines  quae  ipsorum  culpa  con- 
tracta  sunt,  men  ought  to  chafe  most  over  those  things  which  have 
been  brought  about  by  their  own  fault  (as  opposed  to  the  fault  of 
others). 

RELATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

250.  Agreement,    i.    The  Relative  Pronoun  agrees  with 
its  antecedent  in   Gender  and   Number,  but   its   case   is 
determined  by  its  construction  in  the  clause  in  which  it 
stands ;  as,  — 

mulier  quam  videbamus,  the  woman  whom  we  saw ; 
bona  quibus  fruimur,  the  blessings  which  we  enjoy. 

2.  Where  the  antecedent  is  compound,  the  same  principles  for 
number  and  gender  prevail  as  in  case  of  predicate  adjectives  under 
similar  conditions  (see  §  235,  B,  2).  Thus  :  — 

pater  et  filius,  qui  capti  sunt,  the  father  and  son  who  were  captured ; 
stultitia  et  timiditas  quae  fugienda  sunt,  folly  and  cowardice  which 

must  be  shunned ; 
honores  et  victoriae  quae  sunt  fortuita,  honors  and  victories  which 

are  accidental. 

M 


1 62  Syntax. 

3.  The  Relative   regularly  agrees  with  a   predicate  noun  (either 
Nominative  or  Accusative)  instead  of  its  antecedent ;  as,  — 

career,  quae  lautumiae  vocantur,  the  prison,  which  is  called  Lau- 

tumiae ; 
Celtae,  quae  est  tertia  pars,  the  Celts,  who  are  the  third  part. 

4.  Sometimes  the  Relative  takes  its  gender  and  number  from  the 
meaning  of  its  antecedent ;  as,  — 

pars  qui  bestiis  object!  sunt,  a  part  (of  the  men)  who  were  thrown 
to  beasts. 

5.  Occasionally  the  Relative  is  attracted  into  the  case  of  its  ante- 
cedent ;  as,  — 

natus  eo  patre  quo  dixi,  born  of  the  father  that  I  said. 

251.    Antecedent,    i.    The  antecedent  of  the  Relative  is 
sometimes  omitted ;  as,  — 
qui  naturam  sequitur  sapiens  est,  he  who  follows  Nature  is  wise. 

2.  The  antecedent  may  be  implied  in  a  possessive  pronoun  (or 
rarely  an  adjective)  ;  as,  — 

nostra  qui  remansimus  caedes,  the  slaughter  of  us  who  remained; 

servili  tumultu,  qu5s  usus  ac  disciplma  sublevarunt,  at  the  up- 
rising of  the  slaves,  whom  experience  and  discipline  assisted 
(servili  =  servorum). 

3.  Sometimes  the  antecedent  is  repeated  with  the  Relative;  as, — 
erant  itinera  duo,  quibus  itineribus,  there  were  two  routes,  by  which 

(routes}. 

4.  Incorporation  of  Antecedent  in  Relative   Clause.      The 

antecedent  is  often  incorporated  in  the  relative  clause.     Thus  :  — 

a)  When  the  relative  clause  stands  first ;  as,  — 

quam  quisque  novit  artem  in  hac  se  exerceat,  let  each 
one  practice  the  branch  which  he  knows. 

b)  When  the  antecedent  is  an  appositive  ;  as,  — 

non  longe  a  Tolosatium  finibus  absunt,  quae  civitas 
est  in  provincia,  they  are  not  far  from  the  borders  of 
the  Tolosates,  a  state  which  is  in  our  province. 

c)  When  the  logical  antecedent  is  a  superlative  ;  as,  — 
ThemistoclSs  de  servis  suis,  quern  habuit  fidelissimum 

misit,  Themistocles  sent  the  most  trusty  slave  he  had. 


Relative  Pronouns.  —  Indefinite  Pronouns.          163 

d)    In  expressions  of  the  type  — 

qua  es  prudentia ;  quae  tua  est  prudentia,  such  is  your 
prudence  (lit.  of  which  prudence  you  are;  which  is  your 
prudence) . 

5.  The  Relative  is  never  omitted  in  Latin  as  it  is  in  English.    Thus 
the  boy  I  saw  must  be  puer  quern  vidi. 

6.  The  Relative  is  used  freely  in  Latin,  particularly  at  the  beginning 
of  a  sentence,  where  in  English  we  employ  a  demonstrative  ;  as, — 

quo  f actum  est,  by  this  it  happened ; 

quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  this  is  so ; 

quibus  rebus  cognitis,  when  these  things  became  known. 

7.  The   Relative   introducing   a   subordinate    clause    may  belong 
grammatically  to  a  clause  which  is  subordinate  to  the  one  it  intro- 
duces ;  as,  — 

numquam  digue  satis  laudari  philosophia  poterit,  cui  qui 
pareat,  omne  tempus  aetatis  sine  molestia  possit  degere, 
philosophy  can  never  be  praised  enough,  since  he  who  obeys  her 
can  pass  all  his  life  without  annoyance  (lit.  he  who  obeys  which, 
etc.). 

Here  cui  introduces  the  subordinate  clause  possit  and  connects  it 
with  philosophia ;  but  cui  is  governed  by  pareat,  which  is  subordi- 
nate to  possit. 

INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS. 

252.    i .    Quis,  any  one,  is  the  weakest  of  the  Indefinites,  and  stands 
usually  in  combination  with  si,  nisi,  ne,  nurn  ;  as,  — 
si  quis  putat,  if  any  one  thinks. 

2.  Aliquis  (adj.  aliqui)  is  more  definite  than  quis,  and  corre- 
sponds usually  to  the  English  some  one,  somebody,  some ;  as,  — 

nunc  aliquis  dicat  mihi,  now  let  somebody  tell  me ; 

utinam  modo  agatur  aliquid,  oh  that  something  may  be  done. 

3.  Quidam,  a  certain  one,  is  still  more  definite  than  aliquis  ;  as, — 
homo  quidam,  a  certain  man  (i.e.  one  whom  I  have  in  mind). 

a.     Quidam  (with  or  without  quasi,  as  if)  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
sense  :  a  sort  of,  kind  of;  as,  — 
quaedam  cognatio,  a  sort  of  relationship ; 

mors  est  quasi  quaedam  migratio,  death  is  a  kind  of  transfer \ 
as  it  were. 


1 64  Syntax. 

4.  Quisquam,  any  one,  any  one  whoever  (more  general  than  quis), 
and  its  corresponding  adjective  ullus,  any,  occur  mostly  in  negative 
and  conditional  sentences,  in  interrogative  sentences  implying  a  nega- 
tive, and  in  clauses  of  comparison  ;  as,  — 

justitia  numquam  nocet  ouiqnam,///^//^  never  harms  anybody, 
si  quisquam,  Cato  sapiens  f  uit,  if  anybody  was  ever  wise,  Cato  was  ; 
potestne  quisquam  sine  perturbatione  auimi  irasci,  can  anybody 

be  angry  without  excitement  f 

si  ullo  modo  fieri  potest,  if  it  can  be  done  in  any  way, 
taetrior  hie  tyrannus  fuit  quam  quisquam  superior um,  he  was  a 

viler  tyrant  than  any  of  his  predecessors. 

5.  Quisque,  each  one,  is  used  especially  under  the  following  circum- 
stances :  — 

a)    In  connection  with  suus.     See  §  244,  4,  a. 

b}    In   connection  with  a  Relative  or  Interrogative  Pronoun ; 

as,— 

quod  cuique  obtigit,  id  teiieat,  what  falls  to  each,  that  let 
him  hold. 

c)  In  connection  with  superlatives  ;  as,  — 
optimus  quisque,  all  the  best  (lit.  each  best  one). 

d)  With  ordinal  numerals  ;  as,  — 

quinto  quoque  anno,  every  four  years  (lit.  each  fifth  year). 

6.  Nemo,  no  one,  stands  regularly  with  adjectives  used  substan- 

tively ;  as,  — 

nemo  mortalis,  no  mortal', 

nemo  Romanus.  no  Roman. 


,       PRONOMINAL   ADJECTIVES. 

253.    i.     Alius,  another,  and  alter,  the  other,  are  often  used  correl- 
atively ;  as,  — 

aliud  loquitur,  aliud  sentit,  he  says  one  thing,  he  thinks  another ; 
alii  resistunt,  alii  fugiunt,  some  resist,  others  flee; 
alter  exercitum  perdidit,  alter  vendidit,  one  ruined  the  army,  the 

other  sold  it; 
alter!  se  in  montem  receperunt,  alter!  ad  impedimenta  se  contu- 

lerunt,  the  one  party  retreated  to  the  mountain,  the  others  betook 

themselves  to  the 


Agreement  of  Verb  with  Subject.  165 

2.  Where  the  English  says  one  does  one  thing,  another  another,  the 
Latin  uses  a  more  condensed  form  of  statement ;  as,  — 

alius  aliud  amat,  one  likes  one  thing,  another  another ; 
aliud  aliis  placet,  one  thing  pleases  some,  another  others. 

a.    So  sometimes  with  adverbs ;  as, — 

alii  alio  fugfiunt,  somefiee  in  one  direction,  others  in  another. 

3.  The  Latin  also  expresses  the  notion  ^  each  other"  by  means  of 
alius  repeated  ;  as,  — 

Galli  alius  alium  cohortati  sunt,  the  Gauls  encouraged  each  other. 

4.  Ceterl  means  the  rest,  all  the  others ;  as,  — 

ceteris  praestare,  to  be  superior  to  all  the  others. 

5.  Reliqui  means  the  others  in  the  sense  of  the  rest^  those  remain- 
ing, —  hence  is  the  regular  word  with  numerals  ;  as,  — 

reliqui  sex,  the  six  others. 

6.  Ngscio  quis  forms  a  compound  indefinite  pronoun  with  the 
force  of  some  one  or  other  ;  as,  — 

causidicus  nescid  quis,  some  pettifogger  or  other ; 
misit  nescid  quern,  he  sent  some  one  or  other ; 
nescio  quo  pacto,  somehow  or  other. 


CHAPTER  V.  —  Syntax  of  Verbs. 

AGREEMENT. 
With  One  Subject. 

254.    I.    Agreement    in   Number    and    Person.       A    Finite 
Verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  Number  and  Person  ;  as, — 

vos  videtis,  you  see ; 

pater  filios  instituit,  the  father  trains  his  sons. 

2.    Agreement  in  Gender.     In  the  compound  forms  of  the  verb 
the  participle  regularly  agrees  with  its  subject  in  gender ;  as,  — 

seditio  repressa  est,  the  mutiny  was  checked. 


1 66  Syntax. 

3.  But  when  a  predicate  noun  is  of  different  gender  or  number  from 
its  subject,  the  verb  usually  agrees  with  its  nearest  substantive ;  as, — 
Tarquinii  materna  patria  erat,    Tarquinii  was  his  native  country 

on  his  mother's  side ; 

non  omnis  error  stultitia  est  dicenda,  not  every  error  is  to  be  called 
folly, 
a.     Less  frequently  the  verb  agrees  with  an  appositive ;  as,  — 

Corioli,  oppidum  Volscorum,  captum  est,  Corioli,  a  town  of  the 
Volsci,  was  captured. 

4.  Construction    according  to    Sense.      Sometimes    the   verb 
agrees  with  its   subject  according  to   sense   instead   of  strict  gram- 
matical form.     Thus :  — 

a)  In  Number;  as, — 

multitude  hominum  convenerant,  a  crowd  of  men  had 
gathered. 

b)  In  Gender;  as, — 

duo  milia  crucibus  adfixi  sunt,  two  thousand  (men)  were 
crucified. 

With  Two  or  More  Subjects. 

255.    I.    Agreement  in  Number.      With  two  or  more  sub- 
jects  the  verb  is  regularly  plural ;  as,  — 

pater  et  films  mortui  sunt,  the  father  and  son  died. 
i.    But  sometimes  the  verb  agrees  with  the  nearest  subject ;  z//>., — 

a)  When  the  verb  precedes  both  subjects  or  stands  between 
them ;  as,  — 

mortuus  est  pater  et  filius ; 
pater  mortuus  est  et  filius. 

b)  When  the  subjects  are  connected  by  aut;  aut  .  .  .  aut; 
vel  .   .   .  vel ;  neque  .   .   .  neque ;   as,  — 

neque  pater  neque  filius  mortuus  est,  neither  father  nor 
son  died. 

3.   When  the  different  subjects  are  felt  together  as  constituting  a 
whole,  the  singular  is  used  ;  as,  — 

temeritas    ignoratioque   vitiosa   est,  rashness  and  ignorance  are 
bad. 
a.    This  is  regularly  the  case  in  senatus  populusque  Romanus. 


Voices.  —  Tenses.  167 

4.  Agreement   in   Person.     With  subjects  of  different  persons 
the  verb  always  takes  the  first  person  rather  than  the  second,  and  the 
second  rather  than  the  third;  as, — 

si  tu  et  Tullia  valetis,  ego  et  Cicero  valemus,  if  you  and  Tullia 
are  well,  Cicero  and  I  are  well. 

5.  Agreement   in   Gender.     With  subjects  of  different  genders 
the  participle  in  the  compound  tenses  follows  the  same  principles  as 
laid  down  for  predicate  adjectives.     See  §  235,  B,  2. 


VOICES. 

256.  i .   The  Passive  Voice  sometimes  retains  traces  of  its  original 
middle  or  reflexive  meaning ;  as,  — 

ego  non  patiar  eum  defend!,  /  shall  not  allow  him  to  defend  himself. 

2.  In  imitation  of  Greek  usage  many  perfect  passive  participles  are 
used  by  the  poets  as  indirect  middles,  i.e.  the  subject  is  viewed  as  act- 
ing not  upon  himself,  but  as  doing  something  in  his  own  interest ;  as,  — 

vglatus  tempora,  having  veiled  his  temples. 
a.    Occasionally  finite  forms  of  the  verb  are  thus  used;  as, — 
tunica  inducitur  artus,  he  covers  his  limbs  with  a  tunic. 

3.  Intransitive  Verbs  may  be  used  impersonally  in  the  passive ;  as,  — 

curritur,  people  run  (lit.  //  is  run) ; 

ventum  est,  he  (they,  etc.)  came  (lit.  //  was  come). 

TENSES. 

TENSES   OF   THE   INDICATIVE. 

257.  i.    The    Latin    tenses    express    two    distinct    no- 
tions :  — 

a)  The  period  of  time  to  which  the  action  belongs  : 

Present,  Past,  or  Future. 
V)  The   kind  of  action :   Undefined,    Going    on,    or 

Completed. 

The  Latin  with  its  six  tenses  is  able  to  express  each  of  the  three  kinds 
of  action  for  each  of  the  three  periods  of  time  (making  practically  nine 


1 68 


Syntax. 


tenses).     It  does  this  by  employing  certain  tenses  in  more  than  one 
way,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  following  table :  — 

PERIOD   OF  TIME. 


PRESENT. 


PAST. 


FUTURE. 


UNDEFINED. 


GOING  ON. 


COMPLETED. 


I 


Present  : 

Historical  Perfect  : 

Future  : 

scribo,  I  write. 

scripsl,  /  wrote. 

scribam,  /  shall 

write. 

Present  : 
scribo,     /    am 

Imperfect  : 
scribebam,    / 

Future  : 
scribam,  I  shall 

writing. 

was  writing. 

be  writing. 

Present  Perfect  : 
scrips!,   /  have 

Pluperfect  : 
scripseram,  / 

Future  Perfect  : 
scripsero,        / 

written. 

had  written. 

shall  have  writ- 

ten. 

2.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  Present  may  express  Undefined  action 
or  action  Going  on ;  so  also  the  Future.  The  Perfect  likewise  has  a 
double  use,  according  as  it  denotes  action  Completed  in  present  time 
(Present  Perfect)  or  Undefined  action  belonging  to  past  time  (Historical 
Perfect). 

Principal  and  Historical  Tenses. 

258.  Tenses  which  denote  Present  or  Future  time  are 
called  Principal  Tenses ;    those  which   denote    Past  time 
are  called  Historical. 

The  Principal  Tenses  of  the  Indicative  are  :  Present, 
Future,  Present  Perfect,  Future  Perfect. 

The  Historical  Tenses  are :  Imperfect,  Historical  Per- 
fect, Pluperfect. 

Present  Indicative. 

259.  Besides  the  two  uses  indicated  in  the  table,  the 
Present  Indicative  presents  the  following  peculiarities  :  — 

i.  It  is  used  to  denote,  a  general  truth,  i.e.  something  true  not 
merely  in  the  present  but  at  all  times  ('  Gnomic  Present 1)  ;  as, — 

virtus  conciliat  amicitias  et  conservat,  virtue  establishes  ties  of 
friendship  and  maintains  them  (i.e.  always  does  so). 


Tenses.  169 

2.  It  is  used  of  an  attempted  action  ('Conative  Present')  ;  as, — 

dum  vitant  vitia,  in  contraria  currunt,  while  they  try  to  avoid 
(v  it  ant)  vices )  they  rush  into  opposite  ones. 

3.  In  lively  narration  the  Present  is  often  used  of  a  past  action 
(<  Historical  Present');  as, — 

Caesar  Aeduis  obsides  imperat,  Caesar  demanded  hostages  of  the 
Aedui  (lit.  demands). 

4.  In  combination  with  jam,  jam  diu,  jam  pridem,  and  similar 
words,  the  Present  is  frequently  used  of  an  action  originating  in  the 
past  and  continuing  in  the  present ;  as,  — 

jam  diu  cupio  te  visere,  I  have  long  been  desiring  to  visit  you  (i.e.  I 
desire  and  have  long  desired) . 

Imperfect  Indicative. 

260.    i.    The  Imperfect  primarily  denotes  action  going 
on  in  past  time  ;  as,  — 

librum  legebam,  I  was  reading  a  book. 

a.    This  force  makes  the  Imperfect  especially  adapted  to  serve 
as  the  tense  of  description  (as  opposed  to  mere  narration) . 
i 

2.  From  the  notion  of  action  going  on,  there  easily  develops  the 
notion  of  repeated  or  customary  action  ;  as,  — 

legates  interrogabat,  he  kept  asking  the  envoys ; 

puer  C.  Duilium  videbam,  as  a  boy  I  often  used  to  see  Gaius  Duilius. 

3.  Like   the   Present,  the   Imperfect   often  denotes  an  attempted 
action  (<  Conative  Imperfect ')  ;  as, — 

hostes  nostros  iiitra  munitiones  progredi  prohibebant,  the  enemy 
.  tried  to  prevent  (prohibebant)  our  men  from  advancing  within 
the  fortifications. 

4.  The  Imperfect,  with  jam,  jam  diu,  jam  dudum,  etc.,  is  some- 
times used  of  a  past   action  which   had   been   continuing  for  some 
time;  as, — 

domicilium  Romae  multos  jam  annos  habebat,  he  had  had  his 

residence  at  Rome  for  many  years  (i.e.  he  had  it  at  this  time 
and  had  long  had  it) . 


1 70  Syntax. 

Future  Indicative. 

261.  i.   The   two   regular  uses   of  the   Future   have   been  given 
above  in  the  Table  (p.  168). 

2,.  The  Latin  is  much  more  exact  in  the  use  of  the  Future  than  is 
the  English.  We  say:  ^  If  he  comes,  I  shall  be  gladj  where  we  really 
mean:  *  If  he  shall  come,"1  etc.  In  such  cases  the  Latin  rarely  admits 
the  Present,  but  generally  employs  the  Future ;  viz.  si  veniet, 
laetus  ero. 

Perfect  Indicative. 

262.  A.   PRESENT  PERFECT.     Several  Present  Perfects  denote  the 
state  resulting  from  a  completed  act,  and  so  seem  equivalent  to  the 
Present;  as, — 

_   .  \  I  know  (lit.  /  have  become  acquainted  with) ; 
consuevi,  I  am  wont  (lit.  I  have  become  accustomed). 

B.  HISTORICAL  PERFECT.  The  Historical  Perfect  is  primarily  the 
tense  of  narration  (as  opposed  to  the  Imperfect,  the  tense  of  descrip- 
tion) ;  as,  — 

Regulus  in  senatum  venit,  mandata  exposuit.  reddi  captives 
negavit  esse  utile,  Regulus  came  into  the  Senate,  set  forth  his 
commission,  said  it  was  useless  for  captives  to  be  returned. 
i.     Occasionally  the  Historical  Perfect  is  used  of  a  general  truth  ('  Gnomic 
Perfect'). 

Pluperfect  Indicative. 

263.  The  Latin  Pluperfect,  like  the  English  Past  Per- 
fect, denotes  an  act  completed  in  the  past;  as,  — 

Caesar  Rhenum  transire  decreverat,  sed  naves  deerant,  Caesar 
had  decided  to  cross  the  Rhine,  but  had  no  boats. 

Future  Perfect  Indicative. 

264.  The  Future  Perfect  denotes  an  action  completed 
in  future  time.     Thus  :  — 

scribam  epistulam,  cum  redieris,  /  will  write  the  letter  when  you 
have  returned  (lit.  when  you  shall  have  returned) . 
a.    The  Latin  is  much  more  exact  in  the  use  of  the  Future  Per- 
fect than  the  English,  which  commonly  employs  the  Present 
Perfect  instead  of  the  Future  Perfect. 


Sequence  of  Tenses.  171 

Epistolary  Tenses. 

265.  In  letters  the  writer  often  uses  tenses  which  are  not  appro- 
priate at  the  time  of  writing,  but  which  will  be  so  at  the  time  when  his 
letter  is  received ;  he  thus  employs  the  Imperfect  and  the  Perfect  for 
the  Present,  and  the  Pluperfect  for  the  Present  Perfect ;  as,  — 

nihil  habebam  quod  scriberem,  neque  enim  novi  quidquam 
audieram  et  ad  tuas  omiies  epistulas  jam  rescripseram,  / 
have  nothing  to  write,  for  I  have  heard  no  news  and  have 
already  answered  all  your  letters. 

TENSES   OF   THE   SUBJUNCTIVE. 

266.  A.    In  Independent  Sentences.     See  §§   272-280. 
B.   In  Dependent  Sentences.    In  dependent  sentences  the 

tenses  of  the  subjunctive  usually  conform  to  the  so-called 

Sequence  of  Tenses. 

267.  i.    In  the  Subjunctive  the  Present  and  Perfect  are 
Principal  tenses,  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  Historical. 

2.  By  the  Sequence  of  Tenses  Principal  tenses  are  fol- 
lowed by  Principal,  Historical  by  Historical.     Thus:  — 

PRINCIPAL  SEQUENCE, — 

video  quid  facias,  I  see  what  you  are  doing. 
videbo  quid  facias,  /  shall  see  what  you  are  doing. 
videro  quid  facias,  / shall  have  seen  what  you  are  doing. 
vide5  quid  feceris,  /  see  what  you  have  done. 
videbo  quid  feceris,  I  shall  see  what  you  have  done. 
videro  quid  feceris,  I  shall  have  seen  what  you  have  done. 

HISTORICAL  SEQUENCE,— 

videbam  quid  faceres,  I  saw  what  you  were  doing. 
vidi  quid  faceres,  I  saw  what  you  were  doing. 
videram  quid  faceres,  /  had  seen  what  you  were  doing. 
videbam  quid  fecisses,  I  saw  what  you  had  done. 
vidi  quid  fecisses,  /  saw  what  you  had  done. 
videram  quid  fecisses,  I  had  seen  what  you  had  done. 

3.  The    Present    and    Imperfect    Subjunctive    denote    incomplete 
action,  the  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  completed  action,  exactly  as  in  the 
Indicative. 


172  Syntax. 

Peculiarities  of  Sequence. 

268.  i.  The  Perfect  Indicative  is  usually  an  historical  tense  (even 
when  translated  in  English  as  a  Present  Perfect),  and  so  is  followed  by 
the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  ;  as, — 

demonstravi  quare  ad  causam  accederem,  /  have  shown  why  I 
took  the  case  (lit.  I  showed  why,  etc.). 

2.  A  dependent  Perfect  Infinitive  is  treated  as  an  historical  tense 
wherever,  if  resolved  into  an  equivalent  Indicative,  it  would  be  his- 
torical ;  as,  — 

videor  ostendisse  quales  del  essent,  I  seem  to  have  shown  of  what 
nature  the  gods  are  (ostendisse  here  corresponds  to  an  Indic- 
ative, osteiidi,  I  showed). 

3.  The  Historical  Present  is  sometimes  regarded  as  a  principal 
tense,  sometimes  as  historical.     Thus  :  — 

Sulla  suos  hortatur  ut  forti  ammo  sint,  Sulla  exhorts  his  soldiers 

to  be  stout-hearted; 
Gallos  hortatur  ut  arma  caperent,  he  exhorted  the  Gauls  to  take 

arms. 

4.  Conditional   sentences   of  the  <  contrary-to-fact 1  type   are   not 
affected  by  the  principles  for  the  Sequence  of  Tenses ;   as,  — 
honestum  tale  est  ut  vel  si  ignorarent  id  homines  sua  tamen 

pulchritudine  laudabile  esset,  virtue  is  such  a  thing  that 
even  if  men  were  ignorant  of  it,  it  would  still  be  worthy  of 
praise  for  its  own  loveliness. 

5.  In  conditional  sentences  of  the  'contrary-to-fact1  type  the  Imper- 
fect Subjunctive  is  usually  treated  as  an  Historical  tense ;  as,  — 

si  solos  e5s  diceres  miseros,  quibus  morieiidum  esset,  neminem 
tu  quidem  eorum  qui  viverent  exciperes,  if  you  called  only 
those  wretched  who  must  die,  you  would  except  no  one  of  those 
who  live. 

6.  In  clauses  of  Result  and  some  others,  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  is 
sometimes  used  as  an  historical  tense.     Thus:  — 

rex   tantum   motus  est,  ut  Tissaphernem  hostem  judicarit,  the 

king  was  so  much  moved  that  he  adjudged  Tissaphernes  an 
enemy. 

This  construction  is  rare  in  Cicero,  but  frequent  in  Nepos  and  sub- 
sequent historians.  The  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  this  use  represents  a 


Sequence  of  Tenses.  173 

result  simply  as  a  fact  'without  reference  to  the  continuance  of  the  act, 
and  therefore  corresponds  to  an  Historical  Perfect  Indicative  of  direct 
statement.  Thus,  judicarit  in  the  above  example  corresponds  to 
a  judicavit,  he  adjudged.  To  denote  a  result  as  something  continuous, 
all  writers  use  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  after  historical  tenses. 

7.  Sometimes  perspicuity  demands  that  the  ordinary  principles  of 
Sequence  be  abandoned  altogether.  Thus  :  — 

a)  We  may  have  the  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  after  an 
historical  tense  ;  as,  — 

Verres  Siciliam  ita  perdidit  ut  ea  restitui  non  possit, 
Verres  so  mined  Sicily  that  it  cannot  be  restored 
(Direct  statement ;  non  potest  restitui)  ; 

ardebat  Hortensius  dicendi  cupiditate  sic.  ut  in 
nullo  flagrantius  studium  viderim,  Hortensius 
burned  so  with  eagerness  to  speak  that  I  have  seen  in  no 
one  a  greater  desire  (Direct  statement :  in  nullo  vidi, 
/  have  seen  in  no  one) . 

NOTE.  —  This  usage  is  different  from  that  cited  under  6.  Here,  by  neglect  of 
Sequence,  the  Perfect  is  used  as  a  principal  tense ;  there  the  Perfect  was  used  as  an 
historical  tense. 

b)  We  may  have  a  principal  tense  followed  by  the  Perfect  Sub- 
junctive used  historically ;  as,  — 

nescio  quid  causae  fuerit  cur  nullas  ad  me  litteras 
dares,  /  do  not  know  what  reason  there  was  why  you 
did  not  send  me  a  letter. 

Here  fuerit   is   historical,   as   is   shown   by   the  following 

Imperfect  Subjunctive. 

Method  of  expressing  Future  Time  in  the  Subjunctive. 

269.  The  Future  and  Future  Perfect  which  are  lacking 
to  the  Latin  Subjunctive  are  supplied  in  subordinate 
clauses  as  follows:  — 

i .    d)    The  Future  is  supplied  by  the  Present  after  principal  tenses, 

by  the  Imperfect  after  historical  tenses. 

b)    The  Future  Perfect  is  supplied  by  the  Perfect  after  principal 
tenses,  by  the  Pluperfect  after  historical  tenses. 

This  is  especially  frequent  when  the  context  clearly  shows, 
by  the  presence  of  a  future  tense  in  the  main  clause,  that  the 
reference  is  to  future  time.  Thus  :  — 


174  Syntax. 

Galli  pollicentur  se  facturos,  quae    Caesar   imperet,   the  Gauls 

promise  they  will  do  what  Caesar  shall  order ; 
Galli  pollicebaiitur  se  facturos,  quae  Caesar  imperaret,  the  Gauls 

promised  they  would  do  what  Caesar  should  order ; 
Galli  pollicentur  se  facturos  quae  Caesar  imperaverit,  the  Gauls 

promise  they  will  do  what  Caesar  shall  have  ordered ; 
Galli  pollicebantur  se  facturos   quae  Caesar  imperavisset,  the 

Gauls  promised  they  would  do  what  Caesar  should  have  ordered. 

2.  Even  where  the  context  does  not  contain  a  Future  tense  in  the 
main  clause,  Future  time  is  often  expressed  in  the  subordinate  clauses 
by  the  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive.     Thus  :  — 

timeo  ne  veniat,  /  am  afraid  he  will  come ; 

Caesar  exspectabat  quid  consilii  hostes  caperent,  Caesar  was 
waiting  to  see  what  plan  the  enemy  would  adopt. 

3.  Where  greater  definitehess  is  necessary  the  periphrastic  forms 
in  -urus  sim  and  -urus  essem  are  employed,  especially  in  clauses  of 
Result,  Indirect  Questions,  and  after  non  dubito  quin;  as, — 

non    dubito    quin   pater  venturus    sit,  /  do   not  doubt   that   my 

father  will  come ; 
non  dubitabam  qum  pater  venturus  esset,  /  did  not  doubt  that 

my  father  would  come. 

4.  Where  the  verb  has  no  Future  Active  Participle  or  where  it 
stands  in  the  passive  voice,  its  Future  character  may  be  indicated  by 
the  use  of  the  particles  mox,  brevi,  statim,  etc.,  in  connection  with 
the  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive  ;  as,  — 

non  dubito  qum  te  mox  hujus  rei  paeniteat,  /  do  not  doubt  that 

you  will  soon  repent  of  this  thing; 
11611  dubitabam  quin  haec  res  brevi  conficeretur,  /  did  not  doubt 

that  this  thing  would  soon  be  finished. 


TENSES   OF   THE   INFINITIVE. 

270.  i.  The  tenses  of  the  Infinitive  denote  time  not 
absolutely,  but  with  reference  to  the  verb  on  which  they 
depend.  Thus :  — 

a)   The  Present  Infinitive  represents  an  act  as  contemporaneous 
with  the  time  of  the  verb  on  which  it  depends  ;  as,  — 
videtur  honores  adsequT,  he  seems  to  be  gaining  honors  ; 
videbatur  honores  adsequi,  he  seemed  to  be  gaining  honors. 


Tenses  of  the  Infinitive.  175 

b)  The  Perfect  Infinitive  represents  an  act  as  prior  to  the  time 
of  the  verb  on  which  it  depends  ;  as,  — 

videtur  honores  adsecutus  esse,  he  seems  to  have  gained 

honors ; 
visus  est  honores  adsecutus  esse,  he  seemed  to  have 

gamed  honors. 

c)  The  Future  Infinitive  represents  an  act  as  subsequent  to  that 
of  the  verb  on  which  it  depends  ;  as,  — 

videtur  honores  adsecuturus  esse,  he  seems  about  to  gain 

honors  ; 
visus  est  honores  adsecuturus  esse,  he  seemed  about  to 

gain  honors. 

2.  Where  the  English  says  '  ought  to  have  done]  '  might  have  done? 
etc.,  the  Latin  uses  debui,  oportuit,  potui,  with  the  Present  Infini- 
tive ;  as,  — 

debuit  dicere,  he  ought  to  have  said  (lit.  owed  it  to  say)  ; 
oportuit  venire,  he  ought  to  have  come ; 
potuit  videre,  he  might  have  seen. 

a.     Oportuit  sometimes  takes  the  Perfect  Infinitive  instead  of  the  Pres- 
ent; as, — 

hoc  jam  pridem  factum  esse  oportuit,  this  ought  long  ago  to 
have,  been  done. 

3.  PERIPHRASTIC  FUTURE  INFINITIVE.     Verbs  that  have  no  Par- 
ticipial Stem  express  the  Future  Infinitive  Active  and  Passive  by  fore 
ut  or  futurum  esse  ut,  with  the  Subjunctive  ;  as,  — 

spero  fore  ut  te  paeniteat  levitatis,  I  hope  you  will  repent  of  your 
fickleness  (lit.  hope  it  will  happen  that  you  repent)  ; 

spero  futurum  esse  ut  hostes  arceantur,  /  hope  that  the  enemy  will 
be  kept  off. 

a.     The  Periphrastic   Future  Infinitive  is  often  used,    especially   in   the 
Passive,  even  in  case  of  verbs  which  have  the  Participial  Stem  ;  as,  — 
spero  fore  ut  hostes  vincantur,  /  hope  the  enemy  will  be  con- 
quered. 

4.  Passives  and  Deponents  sometimes  form  a  Future  Perfect  Infini- 
tive with  fore  ;  as,  — 

spero  epistulam  scriptam  fore,  /  hope  the  letter  will  have  been 

written ; 
puto  me  omnia  adeptum  fore,  /  think  that  I  shall  have  gained 

everything. 


1 76  Syntax. 

THE    MOODS. 

MOODS    IN    INDEPENDENT    SENTENCES. 
The  Indicative  in  Independent  Sentences. 

271.  The  Indicative  is  used  for  the  statement  of  facts, 
the  supposition  of  facts,  or  inquiry  after  facts. 

i .    Note  the  following  idiomatic  uses  :  — 

a)  With  possum  ;  as,  — 

possum  multa  dicere,  /  might  say  much  ; 

poteram  multa  dicere,  I  might  have  said  much  (§  270,  2). 

b)  In  such  expressions  as  longum  est,  aequum  est,  melius 
est,  difficile  est,  utilius  est,  and  some  others ;  as,  — 
longum  est  ea  dicere,  it  would  be  tedious  to  tell  that ; 
difficile  est  oxnnia  persequi,  it  would  be  difficult  to  enu- 
merate everything. 

The  Subjunctive  in  Independent  Sentences. 

272.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  Independent  Sentences 
to  express  something  — 

1 .  As  -willed  —  Volitive  Subjunctive  ; 

2.  As  desired  —  Optative  Subjunctiv^  ; 

3.  Conceived  of  as  possible  —  Potential  Subjunctive. 

VOLITIVE    SUBJUNCTIVE. 

273.  The  Volitive  Subjunctive  represents  the  action  as 
ivilled.     It  always  implies  authority  on  the  part  of  the 
speaker,  and  has  the  following  varieties  :  — 

A.    HORTATORY  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

274.  The    Hortatory    Subjunctive    expresses   an   exhor- 
tation.    This  use  is  confined   to  the  first  person  plural, 
of  the  Present.     The  negative  is  ng.     Thus  :  — 

eamus,  let  us  go  ; 

amemus  patriam,  let  us  love  our  country  ; 

nS  desperemus,  let  us  not  despair. 


The   Volitive  Subjunctive.  177 

B.   JUSSIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

275.  The   Jussive    Subjunctive   expresses    a   command. 
The  Jussive  stands  regularly  in  the  Present  Tense,  and 
is  used  — 

1 .  Most  frequently  in  the  third  singular  and  third  plural ;  as,  — 

die  at,  let  him  tell ; 
die  ant,  let  them  tell] 

impii  ne  placare  audeant  decs,  let  not  the  wicked  dare  to  appease 
the  gods. 

2.  Less  frequently  in  the  second  person;  as, — 

isto  bono  utare,  use  that  advantage ; 
modeste  vivas,  live  temperately. 

C.    PROHIBITIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

276.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  the  second  person  sin- 
gular and  plural,  with  ne,  to  express  a  prohibition.     As 
regards  the  use  of  tenses,  the  Perfect  seems  to  be  used 
where  there  is  special  excitement  or  emotion,  otherwise  the 
Present;  as, — 

ne  repugnetis,  do  not  resist ! 

tu  vero  istam  ne  reliqueris,  DON'T  YOU  LEAVE  HER! 

a.  Neither  of  these  constructions  is  frequent  in  classical  prose. 

b.  The  distinction  sometimes  drawn  between  the  Present  and  the  Perfect 
in  this  construction,  restricting  the  former  to  general  prohibitions,  and 
the  latter  to  those  addressed  to  a  definite  second  person,  will  not  hold. 

c.  A  commoner  method  of  expressing  a  prohibition  is  by  the 
use   of  noli    (nolite)    with   a   following   infinitive,    or  by 
cave  ne  with  the  Subjunctive  ;  as,  — 

n51i  hoc  facere,  don't  do  this  (lit.  be  unwilling  to  do)! 
nolite  mentiri,  do  not  lie! 

cave  ne  haec  facias,  do  not  do  this  (lit.  take  care  lest 
you  do) . 

D.   DELIBERATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

377.    The  Deliberative  Subjunctive  is  used  in  questions 
and  exclamations    implying   doubt   or  indignation.      The 


1 78  Syntax. 

Present  is  used  referring  to  present  time,  the  Imperfect 
referring  to  past.     The  negative  is  non.     Thus  :  — 

quid  faciam,  what  shall  I  do  f 

ego  redeam,  shall  I  go  back? 

quid  facer  em,  what  was  I  to  do  ? 

hunc  ego  11611  diligam,  shall  I  not  cherish  this  man  f 

a.    These  Deliberative  Questions  are  usually  purely  Rhetorical  in  char- 
acter, and  do  not  expect  an  answer. 

E.  CONCESSIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

278.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  indicate  something  as 
granted  or  conceded  for  the  sake  of  argument.     The  Present 
is  used  for  present  time,  the  Perfect  regularly  for  past. 
The  negative  is  ne.     Thus  :  — 

sit  hoc  verum,  granting  that  this  is  true  (lit.  let  this  be  true)  ; 

ne  sit  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est,  granting  that  pain 

is  not  the  greatest  evil,  yet  it  is  certainly  an  evil ; 
fuerit  malus  civis  aliis,  tibi  quando  esse  coepit,  granting  that  he 

was  a  bad  citizen  to  others,  when  did  he  begin  to  be  so  toward  you  f 

OPTATIVE   SUBJUNCTIVE. 

279.  The  Optative  Subjunctive  occurs  in  expressions  of 
wishing.     The  negative  is  regularly  ne.     The  use  of  tenses 
is  as  follows  :  — 

1 .  The  Present  Tense,  often  accompanied  by  utinam,  is  used  where 
the  wish  is  conceived  of  as  possible. 

di  istaec  prohibeaiit,  may  the  gods  prevent  that ! 

falsus  utinam  vates  sim,  oh  that  I  may  be  a  false  prophet! 

ne  veniaiit,  may  they  not  come  ! 

2.  The  Imperfect  expresses,  in  the  form  of  a  wish,  the  regret  that 
something  is  not  so  now ;  the  Pluperfect  that  something  was  not  so  in 
the  past.     The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  are  always  accompanied  by 
utinam ;  as,  — 

utinam  istud  ex  ammo  diceres,  would  that  you  were  saying  that  in 
earnest,  (i.e.  I  regret  that  you  are  not  saying  it  in  earnest) ; 

Pelides  utinam  vitasset  Apollinis  arcus,  would  that  Achilles  had 
escaped  the  bow  of  Apollo  ; 

utinam  ne  natus  essem,  would  that  I  had  not  been  born. 


The  Potential  Subjunctive.  179 

POTENTIAL   SUBJUNCTIVE. 

280.    The  Potential  Subjunctive  expresses  a  possibility. 
The  negative  is  non.    The  following  uses  are  to  be  noted  :  — 

1.  The  Potential  Subjunctive  may  designate  a  mere  objective  possi- 
bility (English  auxiliary  may).     The  tense  is  usually  the  Present,  but 
the  Perfect  (with  the  force  of  the  Present)  sometimes  occurs.     The 
subject  is  generally  an  indefinite  pronoun.     Thus  :  — 

die  at  aliquis,  some  one  may  say  ; 
dixerit  aliquis,  some  one  may  say ; 
quaerat  quispiam,  some  one  may  ask ; 
dicas,  jw*  (one)  may  say  (§  356,  3). 

a.    This  construction  is  by  no  means  frequent,  and  is  confined 
mainly  to  a  few  phrases  like  those  given  as  examples. 

2.  The  Potential  Subjunctive  may  represent  something  as  contingent 
upon  a  condition  expressed  or  understood  (English  auxiliary  should, 
would).      Both  Present  and  Perfect  occur,  and  without   appreciable 
difference  of  meaning.     Thus  :  — 

f  61  tun  am  citius  reperias  quam  retineas,  one  would  more  quickly  find 

Fortune  than  keep  it  (i.e.  if  one  should  make  the  trial)  ; 
vix  veri  simile  videatur,  it  would  seem  hardly  likely  ; 
paene  dicam,  I  should  almost  say  (i.e.  if  I  were  to  express  an  opinion)  ; 
crediderim,  /  should  believe. 

a.  Here  belongs  the   use  of  velim,  malim,  nolim,  as  more 
cautious  forms  of  statement  for  volo,  malo,  nolo.    Thus  :  — 
velim  mihi  ignSscas,  /  wish  you  would  forgive  me ; 
nolim  putes  me  jocari,  /  don't  want  you  to  think  Pm 

joking. 

b.  When  the  condition  is  expressed,  we  get  one  of  the  regular 
types  of  Conditional  Sentences  (see  §  303)  ;  -as, — 

dies  deficiat,   si   coiier  enumerare  causas,  time  would 
fail  if  I  should  attempt  to  enumerate  the  reasons. 

3.  In  the  Imperfect  the  Potential  occurs  only  in  the  second  per- 
son singular  (with  indefinite  force ;  §  356,  3)  of  a  few  verbs,  chiefly 
the  following :  — 

crederes,  one  might  have  believed ; 

videres,  cerneres,  one  might  have  seen,  perceived  ; 

put  ares,  one  might  have  thought. 


i8o  Syntax. 

The  Imperative. 

281.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  commands,  admonitions, 
and  entreaties  (negative  ne);  as,  — 

egredere  ex  urbe,  depart  from  the  city ; 
mihi  ignosce,  pardon  me ; 
Tja\&,  farewell. 

i.  The  Present  is  the  tense  of  the  Imperative  most  commonly  used, 
but  the  Future  is  employed  — 

a)  Where  there  is  a  distinct  reference  to  future  time,  especially 
in  the  apodosis  of  conditional  sentences  ;  as,  — 

rem  vobis  proponam  ;  vos  earn  penditote,  I  will  lay  the 
matter  before  you ;  do  you  (then)  consider  it ; 

si  bene  disputabit,  tribuito  litteris  Graecis,  if  he  shall 
speak  well,  attribute  it  to  Greek  literature. 

b)  In  laws,  treaties,  wills,  maxims,  etc. ;  as,  — 

consules  summum  jus  habeiito,  the  consuls  shall  have 
supreme  power ; 

hominem  mortuom  in  urbe  ne  sepelito,  no  one  shall  bury 
a  dead  body  in  the  city ; 

amicitia  regi  Antiocho  cum  populo  Romano  his  legi- 
bus  et  condicionibus  esto,  let  there  be  peace  between 
Antiochus  and  the  Roman  people  on  the  following  terms 
and  conditions. 

quartae  esto  partis  Marcus  heres,  let  Marcus  be  heir  to 
a  fourth  (of  the  property}  ; 

ignoscito  saepe  alter!,  numquam  ti\>i,  forgive  your  neigh- 
bor often,  yourself  never. 

7..  Except  with  the  Future  Imperative  the  negative  is  not  used  in 
classical  prose.  Prohibitions  are  regularly  expressed  in  other  ways. 
See  §  276,  c. 

3.  Questions  in  the  Indicative  introduced  by  qum  (why  not?)  are 
often  equivalent  to  an  Imperative  or  to  the  Hortatory  Subjunctive;  as, — 

qum  abis,  go  away  !  (lit.  why  dot? t  you  go  away  T) 

quin  vocem  continetis,   keep  still  I  (lit.   why  don't  you  stop  your 

voices  ?) 
qum  equos  cdiiscendimus,  let  us  mount  our  horses  (lit.  why  do  we 

not  mount  our  horses  f) 


Clauses  of  Purpose.  181 

MOODS   IN   DEPENDENT   CLAUSES. 
Clauses  of  Purpose. 

282.  i.  Clauses  of  Purpose  are  introduced  most  com- 
monly by  ut  (uti),  quo  (that,  in  order  that),  ne  (in  order  that 
not,  lest),  and  stand  in  the  Subjunctive  ;  as,  — 

edimus,  ut  vivamus,  we  eat  that  we  may  live. 

adjuta  me  quo  hoc  fiat  facilius,  help  me,  in  order  that  this  may  be 

done  more  easily. 
portas  clausit,  ne  quam  oppidan!  injuriam  acciperent,  he  closed 

the  gates,  lest  the  townspeople  should  receive  any  injury. 

a.  Quo,  as  a  rule,  is  employed  only  when  the  purpose  clause 
contains  a  comparative  or  a  comparative  idea.     Occasional 
exceptions  occur ;  as,  — 

haec  faciunt  quo  Chremetem  absterreant,  they  are  doing 
this  in  order  to  frighten  Chr  ernes. 

b.  Ut  ne   is   sometimes   found,  as   more   emphatic  than  ne. 
Thus :  - 

ut  ne  quid  neglegenter  agamus,  in  order  that  we  may  not 
do  anything  carelessly. 

c.  Ut  non  (for  ne)  is  used  where  the  negation  belongs  to  some 
single  word,  instead  of  to  the  purpose  clause  as  a  whole. 
Thus :  - 

ut  non  ejectus  ad  alienos,  sed  invitatus  ad  tuos  vide- 
are,  that  you  may  seem  not  driven  out  among  strangers, 
but  invited  to  your  own  friends. 

d.  To  say  '  and  that  not '  or  *  or  that  not]  the  Latin  regularly 
uses  neve  (neu)  ;  as,  — 

ut  earum  rerum  vis  minueretur,  neu  ponti  nocerent, 
that  the  violence  of  these  things  might  be  lessened,  and 
that  they  might  not  harm  the  bridge ; 

profugit,  ne  caperetur  neve  interficeretur,  he  fled,  that  he 
might  not  be  captured  or  killed. 

e.  But  neque  (for  neve)  is  sometimes  used  in  the  second  clause  when 
ut  stands  in  the  first,  and,  after  the  Augustan  era,  even  when  the  first 
clause  is  introduced  by  ne. 


1 82  Syntax. 

2.  A  Relative  Pronoun  (qui)  or  Adverb  (ubi,  unde,  qu5)  is  fre- 
quently used  to  introduce  a  Purpose  Clause ;  as, — 

Helvetii  legates  mittunt,  qui  dicereiit,  the  Helvetii  sent  envoys  to 

say  (lit.  who  shoiild  say)  ; 
haec  habui,  de  senectute  quae  dicerem,  /  had  these  things  to  say 

about  old  age ; 
non  habebat  quo  fugeret,  he  had  no  place  to  which  to  flee  (lit.  whither 

he  might  flee). 

a.     Qui  in  such  clauses  is  equivalent  to  ut  is,  ut  ego,  etc. ;  ubi  to  ut 
ibi ;  unde  to  ut  inde ;  quo  to  ut  eo. 

3.  Relative  clauses  of  purpose  follow  dignus,  indignus,  and  ido- 
neus ;  as,  — 

idoneus  fuit  nemo  quern  imitarere,  there  was  no  one  suitable  for 
you  to  imitate  (cf.  nemo  fuit  quern  imitarere,  there  was  no 
one  to  imitate) ; 

dignus  est  qui  aliquando  imperet,  he  is  worthy  to  rule  sometime. 

4.  Purpose  clauses  often  depend  upon  something  to  be  supplied 
from  the  context  instead  of  upon  the  principal  verb  of  their  own  sen- 
tences ;  as,  — 

ut  haec  omnia  omittam,  abiimus,  to  pass  over  all  this  (/  will  say 
that)  we  departed. 

Clauses  of  Characteristic. 

283.  i.  A  relative  clause  used  to  express  an  essential 
quality  or  characteristic  of  an  antecedent  not  otherwise  de- 
fined is  called  a  Clause  of  Characteristic,  and  stands  in 
the  Subjunctive ;  as,  — 

multa  stint,  quae  mentem  acuant,  they  are  many  things  which 
sharpen  the  wits. 

Clauses  of  Characteristic  are  opposed  to  those  relative  clauses  which 
are  used  merely  to  state  or  assume  some  fact  about  an  antecedent 
already  defined,  and  which  therefore  take  the  Indicative;  as, — 

Cato,  senex  jucundus,  qui  Sapiens  appellatus  est,  Cato,  a  delight- 
ful old  man,  who  was  called  ''The  Wise? 

The  Clause  of  Characteristic  implies  'a  man  of  the  sort  that  does  some- 
thing"1 ;  the  Indicative  relative  clause  implies  ta  man  who  actually 
does  something? 


Clauses  of  Characteristic.  183 

2.  Clauses  of  Characteristic  are  used  especially  after  such  expressions 
as,  est  qui ;  sunt  qui ;   nemo  est  qui ;   nullus  est  qui ;   unus  est 
qui ;  solus  est  qui ;  quis  est  qui ;  is  qui ;  etc.     Thus  :  — 

sunt  qui  dicant,  there  are  (some)  who  say ; 

nemo  est  qui  putet,  there  is  nobody  who  thinks ; 

sapientia  est  una  quae  maestitiam  pellat,  philosophy  is  the  only 

thing  that  drives  away  sorrow ; 
quae  civitas  est  quae  non  everti  possit,  what  state  is  there  that 

cannot  be  overthrown  ? 
non  is  sum  qui  improbos  laudem,  /  am  not  the  sort  of  man  that 

praises  the  wicked. 

a.    Sometimes  (very  rarely  in  Cicero  and  Caesar)  the  clause  of  characteris- 
tic is  used  after  comparatives ;  as,  — 

non  longius  hostes  aberant  quam  quo  telurn  adigi  posset, 
the  enemy  were  not  too  far  off  for  a  dart  to  reach  them  (lit.  further 
off  than  [a  point]  to  which  a  dart  could  be  cast). 

3.  The  Clause  of  Characteristic  often  conveys  an  accessory  notion 
of  cause  {since)  or  opposition  (although).     Thus  :  — 

a)    Cause.     The  relative  is  then  frequently  accompanied  by  ut, 

quippe,  utpote  ;  as,  — 

6  fortunate  adulescEns,  qui  tuae  virtutis  Homerum 
praecoiiem  inveneris,  O  fortunate  man,  since  you 
have  found  a  Homer  as  the  herald  of  your  valor ; 

ut  qui  optimo  jure  earn  provinciam  obtinuerit,  since 
he  held  that  province  by  excellent  right. 

U)    Opposition :  — 

egomet  qui  sero  Graecas  litteras  attigissem,  tamen 
complures  dies  Athenis  commoratus  sum,  /,  al- 
though I  had  taken  up  Greek  literature  late  in  life, 
nevertheless  tarried  several  days  at  Athens. 

4.  Clauses  of  Characteristic  may  also  be  introduced  by  qum  =  qui 
(quae,  quod)  non  ;  as,  — 

nemo  est  qum  saepe  audierit,  there  is  no  one  who  has  not  often 

Jieard ; 

3mo  fuit  militum  quin  vulneraretur,  there  was  no  one  of  the  soldiers 
wJio  was  not  wounded. 

5 .  Under  Clauses  of  Characteristic  belong  also  phrases  of  the  type  : 
quod  sciam,  so  far  as  I  know ;  quod  audierim,  so  far  as  I  have 
heard. 


1 84  Syntax. 


Clauses  of  Result. 

284.  i.  Clauses  of  Result  are  usually  introduced  by  ut 
(that,  so  that),  negative  ut  non  (so  that  not\  and  take  the 
Subjunctive.  The  main  clause  often  contains  tantus,  tails, 
tot,  is  (  =  tails),  tarn,  or  some  similar  word.  Thus  :  — 

quis  tarn  demens  est  ut  sua  voluntate  maereat,  who  is  so  senseless 

as  to  mourn  of  his  own  volition  ? 
Sicilian!  ita  vastavit  ut  restitui  in  antiquum  statum  n5n  possit, 

he  has  so  ravaged  Sicily  that  it  cannot  be  restored  to  its  former 

condition ; 
mo iis  altissimus  impeiidebat,  ut  facile  perpauci  prohibere  pos- 

sent,  a  very  high  mountain  overhung,  so  that  a  very  few  could 

easily  stop  them. 

2.  A  Result  Clause  is  often  introduced  by  a  Relative  Pronoun  or 
Adverb,  qui  (  =  ut  is),  quo  (  =  ut  eo),  etc. ;  as,  — 

nemo  est  tarn  seiiex  qui  se  aiiiium  non  putet  posse  vivere,  nobody 

is  so  old  as  not  to  think  he  will  live  a  year ; 
habetis  eum  consulem  qui  parere  vestris  decretis  non  dubitet, 

you  have  a  consul  such  as  does  not  hesitate  to  obey  your  decrees. 

a.  These  relative  clauses  of  result  are  a  development  of  the  Clause  of 
Characteristic,  and  sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  the  two  con- 
structions. It  is  best  to  class  the  relative  clause  as  one  of  Characteristic, 
unless  the  result  idea  is  clear  and  unmistakable. 

3.  Result  clauses  may  also  be  introduced  by  quin  =  ut  non ;  as,  — 

nihil  tarn  difficile  est  quin  quaerendo  investigari  possit,  nothing 

is  so  difficult  that  it  cannot  be  discovered  by  searching. 
nemo  est  tarn  fortis  quin  rei  novitate  perturbetur,  no  one  is  so 

steadfast  as   not  to   be  thrown    into   confusion    by  a    strange 
occurrence. 

Note  phrases  of  the  type  :  — 

fieri  non  potest  quin  scribam,      ]  7^^  avoid writing. 
facere  non  possum  quin  scribam,  J 

4.  Note  the  use  of  quam  ut  to  denote  result  after  comparatives ;  as,  — 

urbs  erat  mumtior  quam  ut  primo  impetu  cap!  posset,  the  city  was  too 
strongly  fortified  to  be  taken  at  the  first  attack  (lit.  more  strongly  fortified 
than  [so]  that  it  could  be  taken,  etc.} . 


Causal  Clauses.  185 

Causal  Clauses. 

285.  Causal  clauses  are  introduced  chiefly  by  the  fol- 
lowing particles  :  — 

1.  Quod,  quia,  quoniam. 

2.  Cum. 

3.  Quando. 

286.  The  use  of  moods  is  as  follows  :  — 

i.  Quod,  quia,  quoniam  take  the  Indicative  when  the 
reason  is  that  of  the  writer  or  speaker ;  they  take  the  Sub- 
junctive when  the  reason  is  viewed  as  that  of  another. 
Thus:- 

Parthos  timeo  quod  diffido  copiis  nostris,  I  fear  the  Parthians, 
because  I  distrust  ottr  troops. 

Themistocles,  quia  non  tutus  erat,  Corcyram  demigravit,  The- 
mistocles, since  he  was  not  safe,  moved  to  Corey ra. 

neque  me  vixisse  paenitet,  quoniam  beiie  vixi,  /  do  not  regret 
having  lived,  since  /  have  lived  well. 

Socrates  accusatus  est  quod  corrumperet  juventutem,  Socrates 
was  arraigned  on  the  ground  that  he  was  corrupting  the  young. 
(Here  the  reason  is  not  that  of  the  writer  but  of  the  accuser. 
Hence  the  Subjunctive.) 

Aedui  Caesar!  gratias  egerunt,  quod  se  periculo  liberavisset, 
the  Aedui  thanked  Caesar  because  he  had  delivered  them  from 
danger.  (The  reason  of  the  Aedui.) 

quoniam  Miltiades  dicere  n5n  posset,  verba  pro  eo  fecit  Ti- 
sagoras,  since  Miltiades  could  not  speak,  Tisagoras  spoke  for 
him.  (The  reason  of  Tisagoras.) 

noctu  ambulabat  Themistocles,  quod  somnum  capere  non  pos- 
set, Themistocles  used  to  walk  at  night  because  (as  he  said)  he 
couldn't  sleep. 

a.  Verbs  of  thinking  and  saying  often  stand  in  the  Subjunc- 
tive in  causal  clauses  as  though  the  act  of  thinking  or  say- 
ing, and  not  the  contents  of  the  thought  or  language,  con- 
stituted the  reason.  Thus  :  — 

Bellovaci  suum  numerum  non  compleverunt,  quod  se 
suo  nomine  cum  Romania  bellum  gestures  dice- 
rent,  the  Bellovaci  did  not  furnish  their  complement,  be- 


1 86  Syntax. 

cause  they  said  they  were  going  to  wage  war  with  the 
Romans  on  their  own  account. 

b.  Non  quod,  non  quo  (by  attraction  for  non  eo  quod),  non 
quia,  not  that,  not  because;  and  non  quod  non,  noil  quo 
non,   non  quin,  not  that  .  .  .  not;   not  because  .  .  .  not; 
not  but  what,  are  usually  employed  merely  to  introduce  a 
hypothetical  reason,  and  hence  take  the  Subjunctive ;  as,  — 
id  fed,  non  quod  vos  hanc  defensionem  desiderare 

arbitrager,  sed  ut  omnes  intellegerent,  this  I  did, 
not  because  I  thought  you  needed  this  defense,  but  that  all 
might  perceive ; 

Crasso  commendationem  non  sum  pollicitus,  non  quin 
earn  valituram  apud  te  arbitrarer,  sed  egere  mihi 
commendatione  non  videbatur,  I  did  not  promise  a 
recommendation  to  Crassus,  not  that  I  did  not  think  it 
would  have  weight  with  you,  but  because  he  did  not  seem 
to  me  to  need  recommendation. 

c.  But  clauses  introduced  by  non  quod,  non  quia  take  the 
Indicative  if  they  state  a  fact,  even  though  that  fact  is  denied 
to  be  the  reason  for  something ;  as,  — 

hoc  ita  sentio,  non  quia  sum  ipse  augur,  sed  quia  sic 
existimare  nos  est  necesse,  this  I  think,  not  because  I 
am  myself  an  augur  (which  I  really  am),  but  because  it 
is  necessary  for  us  to  think  so. 

2.  Cum  causal  regularly  takes  the  Subjunctive;  as, — 

quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  this  is  so ; 

cum  sis  mortalis,  quae  mortalia  sunt,  cura,  since  you  are  mortal, 
care  for  what  is  mortal. 

a.    Note    the    phrase   cum    praesertim   (praesertim   cum), 

especially  since;  as, — 

Aeduos  accusat,  praesertim  cum  eorum  precibus  ad- 
ductus  bellum  susceperit,  he  blamed  the  Aedui, 
especially  since  he  had  itndertaken  the  war  at  their 
entreaties. 

3.  Quando  (less  frequent  than  the  other  causal  particles)  governs 
the  Indicative  ;  as,  — 

id  omitto,  quando  vobis  ita  placet,  /  pass  over  that,  since  you  so 
wish. 


Clauses  with  Postquam,  Ubi,  etc.  187 

Temporal   Clauses   introduced   by   Postquam,    Ut,    Ubi, 
Simul  ac,    etc. ' 

287.  I.  Postquam  (posteaquam),  after;  ut,  ubi,  when; 
cum  primum,  simul,  simul  ac  (simul  atque),  as  soon  as,  when 
used  to  refer  to  a  single  occurrence  regularly  take  the  Per- 
fect Indicative ;  as,  — 

Epammondas  postquam  audivit  vicisse  Boeotios,  '  Satis '  inquit 
<  vixi,7  Epaminondas,  after  he  heard  that  the  Boeotians  had  con- 
quered, said,  '  I  have  lived  enough.'1  ( 

id  ut  audivit,  Corcyram  demigravit,  when  he  heard  this,  he  moved 
to  Corcyra ; 

Caesar  cum  primum  potuit,  ad  exercitum  contendit,  Caesar,  as 
soon  as  he  could,  hurried  to  the  army ; 

ubi  dS  Caesaris  adventu  certiores  fact!  sunt,  legates  ad  eum 
mittunt,  when  they  were  informed  of  Caesaris  arrival,  they  sent 
envoys  to  him. 

a.  The  Historical  Present  may  take  the  place  of  the  Perfect  in  this  con- 
struction. 

2.  To  denote  the  repeated  occurrence  of  an  act,  ut,  ubi,  simul 
atque,  as  often  as,  when  following  an  historical  tense,  take  the  Plu- 
perfect Indicative ;  as, — 

ut  quisque  Verris  animum  offenderat,  in  lautumias  statim  coni- 
ciebatur,  whenever  anybody  had  offended  Verres^s  feelings,  he 
was  forthwith  put  in  the  stone-quarry ; 

hostes.    ubi    aliquds    egredientes    conspexerant,    adoriebantur, 

whenever  the  enemy  had  seen    any  men    disembarking,   they 
attacked  them. 

a.  In  Livy  and  succeeding  historians  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  Sub- 
junctive are  used  to  denote  this  repeated  occurrence  of  an  act  ('  Indefi- 
nite Frequency ')  ;  as,  — 

id  ubi  dixisset,  hastam  mittebat,  whenever  he  had  said  that,  he 
hurled  a  spear. 

« 

3.  Occasionally  the  above  conjunctions  are  followed  by  the  Pluper- 
fect Indicative  of  a  single  occurrence.     This  is  regularly  the  case  with 
postquam  in  expressions  denoting  a  definite  interval  of  time  (days, 
months,  years,  etc.),  such  as  post  tertium  annum  quam,  tribue  post 
annls  quam.     Thus  :  — 


1 88  Syntax. 

paucis  post  diebus  quam  Luca  discesserat,  ad  Sardiniam  venit, 

a  few  days  after  he  had  departed  from  Luca  he  came  to  Sar- 
dinia ; 

postquam    occupatae    Syracusae    erant,  profectus    est    Cartha- 
ginem,  after  Syracuse  had  been  seized,  he  set  out  for  Carthage. 

4.  The   Imperfect   Indicative  also  sometimes  occurs  to  denote  a  continued 
state;  as, — 

postquam  RSmam  adventabant,  senatus  cSnsultus  est,  after  they  were 

on  the  march  towards  Rome,  the  Senate  was  consulted  ; 
postquam  struct!  utrimque  stabant,  after  they  had  been  drawn  up  on  both 

sides  and  were  in  posit  ion. 

5.  Rarely  postquam,  posteaquam,  following  the  analogy  of  cum,  take 
the  Subjunctive,  but  only  in  the  historical  tenses;  as, — 

posteaquam  sumptuosa  fieri  funera  coepissent,  leg-e  sublata  sunt, 

after  funerals  had  begun  to  be  elaborate,  they  were  done  away  with  by  law. 


Cum-Clauses. 

A.    Cum   REFERRING  TO  THE  PAST. 

288.    i.    Cum,  when  referring  to  the  past,  takes  — 

A.  The    Indicative   (Imperfect,    Historical    Perfect,   or 
Pluperfect)  to  denote  the  point  of  time  at  which  something 
occurs. 

B.  The  Subjunctive  (Imperfect  or  Pluperfect)  to  denote 
the   situation    or    circumstances    under    which    something 
occurs. 

.Examples :  — 

INDICATIVE. 

an  turn  eras  consul,  cum  in  Palatio  mea  domus  ardebat,  or  were 
you  consul  a£the_iime  when  my  hottse  burned  up  on  the  Palatine  ? 

credo  turn  cum  Sicilia  florebat  opibus  et  copiis  magna  artificia 
fuisse  in  ea  msula,  /  believe  that  ajLJhejtime  when  Sicily  was 
powerful  in  riches  and  resources  there  were  great  crafts  in  that 
island; 

eo  tempore  paruit  cum  parere  iiecesse  erat,  he  obeyed  at  the  time 
when  it  was  necessary  to  obey  ; 

illo  die,  cum  est  lata  lex  de  me,  on  that  day  when  the  law  concern- 
ing me  was  passed. 


Cum-C/auses.  189 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Lysander  cum  vellet  Lycurgi  leges  commutare,  prohibitus  est, 

when  Lysander  desired  to  change  the  laws  of  Lycurgus,  he  was 

prevented] 
Pythagoras  cum  in  geometria  quiddam  novi  invenisset,  Musis 

bovem  immolasse  dicitur,  when  Pythagoras  had  discovered 

something  new  in  geometry,  he  is  said  to  have  sacrificed  an  ox  to 

the  Muses. 

a.  Note  that  the  Indicative  is  much  less  frequent  in  such  clauses 
than  the  Subjunctive,  and  is  regularly  confined  to  those  cases 
where  the  main  clause  has  turn,  eo  die,  eo  anno,  eo  tern- 
pore  or  some  similar  correlative  of  the  cum.  Sometimes  it 
depends  entirely  upon  the  point  of  view  of  the  writer  whether 
he  shall  employ  the  Indicative  or  Subjunctive. 

2.  When  the  logical  order  of  the  clauses  is  inverted,  we  find  cum 
with  the  Perfect  Indicative  or  Historical  Present,  in  the  sense  of  when, 
when  suddenly.     The  main  clause  in  such  cases  often  has  jam,  vix, 
aegre,  nondum  ;  as,  — 

jam  Galli  ex  oppido  fugere  apparabant,  cum  matres  familiae 
repente  procurrerunt,  the  Gauls  were  already  preparing  to 
flee,  when  suddenly  the  matrons  rushed  forth  (logically,  the  ma- 
trons rushed  forth  as  the  Gauls  were  preparing  to  flee)  ; 

Treviri  Labienum  adoriri  parabant,  cum  duas  legiones  venisse 
cognoscunt,  the  Treviri  were  preparing  to  attack,  when  (sud- 
denly} they  learned  that  two  legions  had  arrived. 

3.  To  denote  a  recurring  action  in  the  past  cum  is  followed  by  the 
Indicative,  particularly  of  the  Pluperfect ;  as, — 

cum  ad  aliquod  oppidum  venerat,  eadem  lectica  ad  cubiculum 
deferebatur,  whenever  he  had  arrived  at  some  town,  he  was 
(always)  carried  in  the  same  litter  to  his  room  ; 

cum  equitatus  noster  se  in  agros  ejecerat,  essedarios  ex  silvis 
emittebat,  whenever  our  cavalry  had  advanced  into  the  fields, 
he  would  send  his  charioteers  out  from  the  woods. 

a.  Sometimes  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  is  thus  used  ;  as, — 
saepe  cum  aliquem  videret  minus  bene  vestitum,  suum 

amiculum  ded.it,  often,  -whenever  he  saw  some  one  more  poorly 

clothed,  he  gave  him  his  own  mantle  ; 
cum  procucurrissent,  Numidae  effugiebant,  as  often  as  they 

had  advanced,  the  Numidians  ran  away. 
This  construction  is  frequent  in  Livy  and  subsequent  historians. 


igo  Syntax. 

B.     Cum   REFERRING  TO  THE   PRESENT  OR  FUTURE. 

289.  When  cum  refers  to  the  Present  or  Future  it  regu- 
larly takes  the  Indicative  ;  as,  - 

turn  tua  res  agitur,  paries  cum  proximus  ardet,  your  own  interests 

are  at  stake  when  your  neighbors  house  is  burning; 
cum  videbis,  turn  scies,  when  you  see,  then  you  will  know. 

a.    The  Indicative  of  the  Present  or  Future  may  denote  also  a  recurring 
action;  as, — 
stabilitas  amicitiae  confirmari  potest,  cum  homines  cu- 

pidinibus  imperabunt,  firm  friendship  can   be  established 

whenever  men  shall  control  their  desires. 

C.   OTHER  USES  OF  Cum. 

290.  i.    Cum  Explicative.     Cum,  with  the  Indicative,  is  some- 
times used  to  indicate  the  identity  of  one  act  with  another ;  as,  — 
cum  tacent,  clamant,  their  silence  is  a  shout  (lit.  when  they  are 

silent,  they  shout). 

2.    Cum  .  .  .  turn.     When  cum  .  .  .  turn  mean  both  .  .  .  and, 
the  cum-clause  is  in  the  Indicative;  but  when  cum  has  the  force  of 
while,  though,  it  may  take  the  Subjunctive ;  as,  — 
cum  te  semper  dilexerim,  turn  tuis  factis  incensus  sum,  while  1 

have  always  loved  you,  at  the  same  time  I  am  incensed  at 

your  conduct. 

Clauses  introduced  by  Antequam  and  Priusquam. 

A.  WITH  THE  INDICATIVE. 

291.  Antequam  and  priusquam  (often  written  ante  .   .   . 
quam,  prius  .  .  .  quam)  take  the  Indicative  to  denote  an 
actual  fact. 

i.    Sometimes  the  Present  or  Future  Perfect ;  as, — 
prius  respondes  quam  rogo,  you  answer  before  f  ask ; 
iiihil  contra  disputabS  priusquam  dixerit,  /  will  say  nothing  in 
opposition,  before  he  speaks. 

i.    Sometimes  the  Perfect,  especially  after  negative  clauses  ;  as,  — 
non  prius  jugulandi  finis  fuit.  quam  Sulla  omiies  suds  divitiis 
explevit,  there  was  no  end  of  murder  until  Sulla  satisfied  all 
his  henchmen  with  wealth. 


Clauses  with  Dum,  Donee,  etc.  191 

B.  WITH  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

292.  Antequam  and  priusquam  take  the  Subjunctive  to 
denote  an  act  as  anticipated. 

i.    Thus  the  Subjunctive  may  denote  — 

a)  An  act  in  preparation  for  which  the  main  act  takes  place ;  as,  — 
priusquam  dimicarent,  foedus  ictum  est,  i.e.  in  anticipa- 
tion of  the  fight,  a  treaty  was  struck. 

By  an  extension  of  this  usage,  the  Subjunctive  is  sometimes  used  of  general 
truths,  where  the  anticipatory  notion  has  faded  out ;  as,  — 
tempestas  minatur  antequam  surg-at,  the  tempest  threatens  before  it  rises. 

b)  An  act  anticipated  and  forestalled ;  as,  — 

priusquam  telum  adici  posset,  omnis  acies  terga  vertit, 
before  a  spear  could  be  hurled,  the  whole  army  fled. 

c)  An  act  anticipated  and  deprecated  ;  as,  — 

aiiimum  omittunt  priusquam  loco  demigrent,  they  die 
rather  than  quit  their  post. 

2..  After  historical  tenses  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  is  used,  espe- 
cially by  post- Augustan  writers,  where  the  notion  of  anticipation  has 
practically  vanished ;  as,  — 

sol  antequam  se  abderet  fugientem  vidit  Antonium,  the  sun  before 
it  set  saw  Antony  fleeing. 

Clauses  introduced  by  Dum,  Donee,  Quoad. 

293.  I.    Dum,  ivhilc,  regularly  takes  the   Indicative  of 
the  Historical  Present ;  as,  — 

Alexander,  dum  inter  primores  pugnat,  sagitta  ictus  est,  Alex- 
ander, while  he  was  fighting  in  the  van,  was  struck  by  an  arrow, 

dum  haec  geruntur,  in  fines  Venellorum  pervenit,  while  these 
things  were  being  done,  he  arrived  in  the  territory  of  the  Venelli. 

II.  Dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  as  long  as,  take  the  Indica- 
tive;  as, — 

dum  anima  est,  spes  est,  as  long  as  there  is  life,  there  is  hope ; 
Lacedaemoniorum  gens  fortis  fuit,  dum  Lycurgi  leges  vigebant, 

the  race  of  the  Lacedaemonians  was  powerfiiL  as  long  as  the  laws 

of  Lycurgus  were  in  force ; 
Cato.  quoad  vixit,  virtutum  laude  crevit,  Cato,  as  long  as  he  lived, 

increased  in  the  fame  of  his  virtues. 


1 92  Syntax. 

III.    Dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  until,  take:  — 

1.  The  Indicative,  to  denote  an  actual  event ;  as,— 
donee  rediit,  f uit  silentium,  there  was  silence  till  he  came ; 
ferrum  in   corpore   retinuit,  quoad   reiiuntiatum   est   Boeotios 

vicisse,  he  kept  the  iron  in  his  body  until  word  was  brought  tJiat 
the  Boeotians  had  conquered. 

a.     In  Livy  and  subsequent  historians  dum  and  donee  in  this  sense  often 
take  the  Subjunctive  instead  of  the  Indicative;  as, — 
trepidationis  aliquantum  edebant,  donee  timor  quietem 

fecisset,  they  showed  some  trepidation,  until  fear  produced  quiet. 

2.  The    Subjunctive,    to    denote   anticipation    or   expec- 
tancy; as,  — 

exspectavit  Caesar  dum  naves  convenient,  Caesar  waited  for  the 

ships  to  assemble ; 
dum  hostes  veniant,  morabor,  I  shall  wait  for  the  enemy  to  come. 

Substantive  Clauses. 

294.  A   Substantive   Clause  is  one  which  as   a  whole 
serves  as  the   Subject  or  Object   of   a  verb,   or  denotes 
some  other  case  relation. 

A.    Substantive  Clauses  developed  from  the  Volitive. 

295.  These  are   generally  used   as   object-clauses,   and 
occur  with  the  following  classes  of  verbs :  — 

i.    With  verbs  signifying  to  admonish,  request,  command,  urge, per- 
suade, induce^  etc.  (conjunctions  ut,  ne)  ;  as,  — 
postulo  ut  fiat,  /  demand  that  it  be  done  (dependent  form  of  the 

Jussive  fiat,  let  it  be  done!) ; 

orat,  ne  abeas,  he  begs  that  you  will  not  go  away ; 
milites  cohortatus  est  ut  hostium  impetum  sustinerent,  he  ex- 
horted his  soldiers  to  withstand  the  attack  of  the  enemy  ; 
Helvetiis  persuasit  ut  exirent,  he  persuaded  the  Helvetii  to  march 
forth, 
a.     Jubeo,  command,  order,  regularly  takes  the  Infinitive. 

i  Especially:  moneo,  admoneo ;  rog-o,  oro,  peto,  postulo,  precor, 
flagito ;  mandS,  impero,  praecipio ;  suadeo,  hortor,  cohortor;  per- 
suadeo,  impello. 


Substantive  Clauses.  193 

2.  With  verbs  signifying  to  grant,  concede ',  permit ',  allow  ^  etc.  (con- 
junction ut)  ;  as, — 

huic  concede  ut  ea  praetereat,  I  allow  him  to  pass  that  by  (depend- 
ent form  of  the  Jussive  ea  praetereat,  let  him  pass  that  by!) ; 

consul!  permissum  est  ut  duas  legiones  scriberet,  the  consul  was 
permitted  to  enroll  two  legions. 

3.  With  verbs  of  hindering,  preventing?    etc.   (conjunctions   ne, 
quominus,  quin)  ;  as,  — 

ne  lustrum  perficeret,  mors  prohibuit,  death  prevented  him  from 

finishing  the  lustrum  (dependent  form  after  past  tense  of  ne 

lustrum  perficiat,  let  him  not  finish,  etc.)  ; 
prohibuit  quominus  in  uiium  coirent,  he  prevented  them  from  com- 

ing  together ; 
nee,  quin  erumperet,  prohiberi  poterat,  nor  could  he  be  prevented 

from  rushing  forth. 

a.  Quin  is  used  only  when  the  verb  of  hindering  is  accompanied  by  a 
negative,  or  stands  in  a  question  implying  a  negative ;  it  is  not  neces- 
sarily used  even  then. 

Clauses  introduced  by  quominus  and  quin  are  probably  devel- 
oped from  Purpose  Clauses. 

4.  With  verbs  of  deciding,  resolving?  etc.  (conjunctions  ut,  ne) ; 
as,— 

constitueram  ut  pridie  Idus  Aquini  manerem,  /  had  decided  to 

remain  at  Aquinum  on  the  \ith-, 
decrevit  senatus  ut  Opimius  videret,  the  Senate  decreed  that  Opi- 

mius  should  see  to  it ; 
convenit  ut  unis  castris  miscerentur,  //  was  agreed  that  they  should 

be  united  in  one  camp. 

5.  With  verbs  of  striving,*  etc.  (conjunctions  ut,  ne)  ;  as, — 
laborabat  ut  reliquas  civitates  adjungeret,  he  was  striving  to  join 

the  remaining  states  to  him  ; 
contendit  ne  ea  enuntiarentur,  he  strove  that  those  things  should  not 

be  reported. 

a.     Conor,  try,  always  takes  the  Infinitive. 

NOTE.  — Verbs  of  all  the  above  classes  also  admit  the  Infinitive,  especially 
in  poetry. 

1  Especially:  permitto,  concedo,  non  patior. 
•2  Especially:  prohibeo,  impedio,  deterred. 

3  Especially:    constituo,    decernS,    censeo,    placuit,    convenit,    pa- 
ciscor. 

4  Especially:  laboro,  do  operam,  id  ago,  contends,  impetro. 

o 


194  Syntax. 

6.  With  a  few  other  expressions,  such  as  necesse  est,  reliquum 
eat,  sequitur,  licet,  oportet ;  as , — 

reliquum  est  ut  doceam,  //  remains  for  me  to  show ; 
licet  redeas,  you  may  return  ; 
oportet  loquamur,  we  must  speak. 
On  licet  and  oportet  without  ut,  see  paragraph  8. 

7.  Here  also  belong  phrases  of  the  type :  nulla  causa  est  cur, 
quare,  quin  ;  non  est  cur,  etc.;  nihil  est  cur,  etc. ;  as, — 

nulla  causa  est  cur  timeam,  there  is  no  reason  why  I  should  fear 
(originally  Deliberative :  why  should  I  fear?    There^s  no  reason); 
non  est  quare  timeam,  there  is  no  reason  why  I  should  fear ; 
nihil  est  qum  die  am,  there  is  no  reason  why  I  should  not  say. 

8.  Many  of  the  above  classes  of  verbs  at  times  take  the  simple  Sub- 
junctive without  ut.     In  such  cases  we  must  not  recognize  any  omis- 
sion of  ut,  but  simply  an  earlier  form  of  expression  which  existed 
before  -the  ut-clause  arose.     This  is  regularly  the  case  with  necesse 
est?  licet,  and  oportet ;  see  6.     Other  examples  are :  — 

eos  hoc  moneo  desinant,  /  warn  them  to  stop ; 

huic  imperat  adeat  civitates,  he  orders  him  to  visit  the  states. 

B.    Substantive  Clauses  developed  from  the  Optative. 
296.    Here  belong  clauses :  — 

1.  With  verbs  of  wishing,  desiring,  especially  cupio,  opto,  volo, 
maid  (conjunctions  ut,  ne);  as, — 

opto  ut  in  hoc  judicio  nemo  improbus  reperiatur,  /  hope  that  in 
this  court  no  bad  man  may  be  found  (here  ut  reperiatur  repre- 
sents a  simple  optative  of  direct  statement,  viz.  reperiatur,  may 
no  bad  man  be  found!)  ; 

cupio  ne  veniat,  /  desire  that  he  may  not  come. 

a.  The  simple  Subjunctive  (without  ut)  sometimes  occurs  with  verbs  of  this 
class.  (See  §  296, 8.)  Examples  are :  vellem  scriberes,  /  could  wish 
you  wene  writing ;  vellem  scripsisset,  /  could  wish  he  had  written. 

2.  With  verbs  Si  fearing  (time  6,  metuo,  vere  or).    Here  ne  means 
that,  lest,  and  ut  means  that  not ;  as,  — 

timeo  ne  veniat,  I  fear  that  he  will  come  (originally  :  may  he  not  cornel 

Pm  afraid  [he  will~\)  ; 
timed  ut  veniat,  I  fear  tfyat  he  will  not  come  (originally  :  may  he  come ! 

Pm  afraid  [he  wortt~\  ) . 


Substantive  Clauses.  195 

a.  Ne  non  sometimes  occurs  instead  of  ut,  especially  where  the  verb  of 
fearing  has  a  negative,  or  where  the  writer  desires  to  emphasize  some 
particular  word  in  the  dependent  clause ;  as,  — 

non  vereor  ne  hoc  non  flat,  /  am  not  afraid  that  this  will  not 

happen  ; 
vereor  ne  exercitum  flrmum  habere  non  possit,  I  fear  that 

he  is  unable  (non  possit)  to  have  a  strong  army. 


C.    Substantive  Clauses  of  Result. 

297.  Substantive  Clauses  of  Result  (introduced  by  ut, 
ut  non)  are  a  development  of  pure  Result  clauses,  and 
occur  with  the  following  classes  of  words :  — 

i .  As  object  clauses  after  verbs  of  doing,  accomplishing  (especially 
facio,  efficio,  conficio).  Thus  :  — 

gravitas  morbi  facit  ut  medicma  egeamus,  the  severity  of  disease 
makes  us  need  medicine. 

2..  As  the  subject  of  several  impersonal  verbs,  particularly  fit,  effici- 
tur,  accidit,  evenit,  contingit,  accedit,  fieri  potest,  fore,  sequitur, 
relinquitur.  Thus :  — 

ex  quo  efficitur,  ut  voluptas  non  sit  summum  bonum, />•<?;«  which 
it  follows  that  pleasure  is  not  the  greatest  good ; 

ita  fit,  ut  nemo  esse  possit  beatus,  thus  it  happens  that  no  one  can 
be  happy ; 

accedebat  ut  naves  deessent,  another  thing  was  the  lack  of  ships 
(lit.  it  was  added  that  ships  were  lacking). 

3.  As  an  appositive  after  several  such  expressions  as  jus  est,  mos 
est,  consuetude  est ;   also  after  neuter  pronouns,  hoc,   illud,  etc. 
Thus :  - 
est  mos  homiiium  ut  nolint  eundem  pluribus  rebus  excellere, 

it  is  the  way  of  men  not  to  wish  the  same  person  to  excel  in 
many  things. 

D.    Substantive  Clauses  introduced  by  Quln. 

298.  Substantive  Clauses  introduced  by  qum  (used  some- 
times as  subject,  sometimes  as  object)  occur  after  negative 
and  interrogative  expressions  of  doubt,  omission,  and  the 
like,   particularly  after  npu   dubitS,   /  do  not  doubt ;  quis 


1 96  Syntax. 

dubitat,  who  doubts? ;   non  (haud)  dubium  est,  there  is  no 
doubt.     The  mood  is  the  Subjunctive.     Examples  :  — 

quis  dubitat  quiii  in  virtute  divitiae  sint ,  who  doubts  that  in  virtue 

there  are  riches  ? 
non  dubium  erat  quin  venturus  esset,  there  was  no  doubt  that  he 

was  about  to  come. 

a.  In  Nepos,  Livy,  and  post-Augustan  writers  an  Infinitive  sometimes 
takes  the  place  of  the  qum-clause  after  non  dubito  ;  as,  — 

non  dubitamus  inventos  esse,  we  do  not  doubt  that  men  were  found. 

b.  Non  dubit5,  I  do  not  hesitate,  is  regularly  followed  by  the  Infinitive, 
though  sometimes  by  a  quin-clause. 

E.    Substantive  Clauses  introduced  by  Quod. 

299.  i.  Quod,  the  fact  that,  that,  introduces  Substan- 
tive Clauses  in  the  Indicative.  This  construction  occurs 
especially  - 

a)  In  apposition  with  a  preceding  demonstrative,  as  hoc,  id, 
illud,  ilia,  ex  eo,  inde,  etc.     Thus  :  — 

illud  est  admiratione  dignum,  quod  captivos  retinen- 
dos  censuit,  this  is  especially  worthy  of  admiration, 
that  he  thought  the  prisoners  ought  to  be  kept ; 

hoc  uno  praestamus  vel  maxime  feris,  quod  colloqui- 
mur  inter  nos,  in  this  one  respect  are  we  especially 
superior  to  the  beasts,  that  we  talk  with  each  other. 

b)  After    bene    fit,   bene    accidit,   male    fit,   bene   facere, 
etc. ;  as  — 

bene  mini  accidit,  quod  mittor  ad  mortem,  it  is  well  for 

me  that  I  am  sent  to  death  ; 
bene  f  ecisti  quod  mansisti,  you  did  well  in  remaining. 

2.  Quod  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence  sometimes  has  the  force 
of  as  regards  the  fact  that.  Thus  :  — 

quod  multitudinem  Germanorum  in  Galliam  traduco,  id  mei 
muniendi  causa  facio,  as  regards  the  fact  that  I  am  trans- 
porting a  multitude  of  Germans  into  Gaul,  I  am  doing  it  for 
the  sake  of  strengthening  myself', 

quod  me  Agamemnona  aemulari  putas,  falleris,  as  regards  your 
thinking  that  I  emulate  Agamemnon,  you  are  mistaken. 


Substantive  Clauses.  197 

Indirect  Questions. 

300.  i.  Indirect  Questions  are  Substantive  Clauses  used 
after  verbs  of  asking,  inquiring,  telling  and  the  like.  They 
take  their  verb  in  the  Subjunctive.1  Like  Direct  Questions 
(see  §  162)  they  may  be  introduced  — 

a)  By  Interrogative  Pronouns  or  Adverbs  ;  as, — 

die  mini  ubi  fueris,  quid  feceris,  tell  me  where  you  were, 

what  you  did ; 
oculis  judicari  non  potest  in  utram  partem  fluat  Arar, 

//  cannot  be  determined  by  the  eye  in  which  direction  the 

Arar  flows ; 
bis  bina  quot  essent,  nesciebat,  he  did  not  know  how 

many  two  times  two  were. 

NOTE.  —  Care  should  be  taken  to  distinguish  Indirect  Questions  from 
Relative  Clauses.     The  difference  between  the  two  appears  clearly  in 
the  following :  — 
effugere  nemo  id  potest  quod  futurum  est,  no  one  can  escape  what 

is  destined  to  come  to  pass ;  but 
saepe  autem  ne  utile  quidem  est  scire  quid  futurum  sit,  but  often 

it  is  not  even  useful  to  know  what  is  coming  to  pass. 

b)  By  num  or  -ne,  without  distinction  of  meaning ;  as,  — 
Epammondas  quaesivit  num  salvus  esset  clipeus,  or 

salvusne  esset  clipeus,  Epaminondas  asked  whether 

his  shield  was  safe  ; 
disputatur  num  interire  virtus  in  homine  possit,   the 

question  is  raised  whether  virtue  can  die  in  a  man  ; 
ex  Socrate  quaesitum  est  ndnne  Archelaum  beatum 

putaret,  the  question  was  asked  of  Socrates  whether  he 

did  not  think  Archelaus  happy. 

NOTE.  —  Nonne  in  Indirect  Questions  occurs  only  after  quaere,  as  in  the 
last  example  above. 

2.  Often  the  Indirect  Question  represents  a  Deliberative  Subjunctive 
of  the  direct  discourse  ;  as,  — 

nescio  quid  faciam,  I  do  not  know  what  to  do.     (Direct :  quid  faciam, 
what  shall  I  do  /) 

1  Exclamations,  also,  upon  becoming  indirect,  take  the  Subjunctive,  as  con- 
sldera  quam  variae  sint  hominum  cupidines,  consider  how  varied  are  the 
desires  of  men.  (Direct :  quam  variae  sunt  hominum  cupidines  !) 


Syntax. 

3.  After  verbs   of  expectation  and   endeavor   (exspectS,   conor, 
experior,  tempto)  we  sometimes  find  an  Indirect  Question   intro- 
duced by  si ;  as,  — 

conantur  si  perrumpere  possint,  they  try  whether  they  can  break 
through. 

a.     Sometimes  the  governing  verb  is  omitted  ;  as, — 

perg-it  ad  proximam  speluncam  si  forte  e5  vestigia  fer- 
rent,  he  proceeded  to  the  nearest  cave  (to  see)  if  the  tracks  led 
thither. 

4.  Indirect  Double  Questions  are  introduced  in  the  main  by  the 
same  particles  as  direct  double  questions  (§  162,  4)  ;  viz. :  — 

utrum  .   .   .  an ; 
-ne an ; 

....  an; 

....  ne. 

Examples :  — 

quaero  utrum  verum  an  falsum  sit, 

quaero  verumne  an  falsum  sit. 

,  .  I  ask  whether  it  ts  true  or  false? 

quaero  verum  an  falsum  sit, 

quaero  verum  falsumne  sit, 

a.     'Or  not'  in  the  second  member  of  a  double  question  is  ordinarily 
expressed  by  necne,  less  frequently  by  an  non ;  as,  — 
di  utrum  sint  necne,  quaeritur,  it  is  asked  whether  there  are  gods 
or  not. 

5.  Haud  scio  an,  nescio  an,  by  omission  of  the  first  member  of 
the  double  question,  occur  with  the  Subjunctive  in  the  sense :  /  am 
inclined  to  think,  probably,  perhaps ;  as,  — 

haud  scio  an  hoc  verum  sit,  /  am  inclined  to  think  this  is  true. 
Here  the  full  form  of  expression  would  be :  — 

haud  scio  utrum  hoc  falsum  an  verum  sit. 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 

301.  Conditional  Sentences  are  compound  sentences 
(§  164)  consisting  of  two  parts,  the  Protasis  (or  con- 
dition), usually  introduced  by  si,  nisi,  or  sin,  and  the 
Apodosis  (or  conclusion}.  We  distinguish  the  following 
types  of  Conditional  Sentences :  — 


Conditional  Sentences.  199 

First    Type. — Nothing    Implied    as    to    the    Reality    of    the 
Supposed    Case. 

302.  I.    Here  we  regularly  have  the  Indicative  in  both 
Protasis  and  Apodosis.     Any  tense  may  be  used  ;  as,  — 

si  hoc  credis,  erras,  if  you  believe  this,  you  are  mistaken; 

naturam    si    sequemur,    numquam    aberrabimus,    if  we  follow 

Nature,  we  shall  never  go  astray ; 
si  hoc  dixisti,  errasti,  if  you  said  this,  you  were  in  error. 

2.  Sometimes  the  Protasis  takes  the  Indefinite  Second  Person  Singu- 
lar (§  356, 3)  of  the  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive,  with  the  force  of 
the  Indicative  ;  as, — 

memoria  minuitur,  nisi  earn  exerceas,  memory  grows  weak  unless 
you  exercise  it. 

3.  Here  belong  also  those  conditional  sentences  in  which  the  Prot- 
asis denotes  a  repeated  action ;  as,  — 

si  quis  equitum  deciderat,  pedites  circumsistebant,  if  any  one 
of  the  horsemen  fell,  the  foot-soldiers  gathered  about  him. 

a.  Instead  of  the  Indicative,  Livy  and  subsequent  writers  employ  the 
Subjunctive  of  the  Historical  tenses  in  the  Protasis  to  denote  repeated 
action;  as, — 

si  dicendo  quis  diem  eximeret,  if  (ever)  anybody  consumed  a  day 
in  pleading;  si  quando  adsideret,  if  ever  he  sat  by : 

4.  Where  the  sense  demands  it  the  Apodosis  in  conditional  sen- 
tences of  the  First  Type  may  be  an  Imperative  or  one  of  the  Inde- 
pendent Subjunctives  (Hortatory,  Deliberative,  etc.)  ;  as,  — 

si  hoc  creditis,  tacete,  if  you  believe  this,  be  silent; 

si  hoc  credimus,  taceamus,  if  we  believe  this,  let  us  keep  silent. 

Second  Type.  —  Supposed  Case  represented  as  Contingent. 

303.  Here  we  regularly  have  the  Subjunctive  (of  the  Pres- 
ent or  Perfect  tense)  in  both  Protasis  and  Apodosis ;  as,  — 

si  hoc  dicas,  erres,  |  if  you  should  say  this,  you  would  be  mis- 

si  h5c  dixeris,  erraveris,  J        taken. 

si  velim  Hannibalis  proelia  omiiia  describere,  dies  me  deficiat, 

if  I  should  wish  to  describe  all  the  battles  of  Hannibal,  time 
would  fail  me ; 


2OO  Syntax. 

mentiar,  si  negem,  I  should  lie,  if  I  should  deny  it ; 

haec  si  tecum  patria  loquatur,  nonne  impetrare  debeat,  if  your 

country  should  plead  thiis  with  you,  would  she  not  deserve  to 

obtain  her  request  f 

a.  The  Subjunctive  in  the  Apodosis  of  conditional  sentences  of  this  type 
is  of  the  Potential  variety. 

b.  Sometimes  we  find  the  Indicative  in  the  Apodosis  of  sentences  of  the 
Second  Type,  where  the  writer  wishes  to  assert  the  consummation  of  a 
result  more  positively ;  as,  — 

aliter  si  faciat,  nullam  habet  auctoritatem,  if  he  should  do 
otherwise,  he  has  no  authority. 

Third    Type.  —  Supposed    Case    represented    as    Contrary    to 

Fact,). 

304.  i.  Here  we  regularly  have  the  Subjunctive  in  both 
Protasis  and  Apodosis,  the  Imperfect  referring  to  present 
time,  and  the  Pluperfect  referring  to  past;  as,  — 

si  amici  mei  adessent,  opis  noil  indigerem,  if  my  friends  were 
here,  I  should  not  lack  assistance ; 

si  hoc  dixisses,  errasses^  if  yoii  had  said  this,  you  would  have 
erred ;  J 

sapientia  11611  expeteretur,  si  nihil  efficeret,  philosophy  would,  not  * 
be  desired,  if  it  accomplished  nothing ", 

consilium,  ratio,  sententia  nisi  essent  in  senibus,  non  sumrnum 
consilium  majores  nostri  appellassent  senatum,  unl®s  de- 
liberation, reason,  and  wisdom  existed  in  old  men,  our  Dances- 
tors  would  not  have  called  their  highest  deliberative  body  a 
senate. 

2.  Sometimes  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  is  found  referring  to  the 
past,  especially  to  denote  a  continued  act,  or  a  state  of  things  still 
existing,  as, — 

Laelius,  Furius,  Cato,  si  nihil  litteris  adjuvarentur,  numquam  se 
ad  earum  studium  contulissent,  Laelius,  Furius,  and  Cato 
would  never  have  devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of  letters, 
unless  they  had  been  (constantly)  helped  by  them ; 

num  igitur  si  ad  centesimum  annum  vixisset,  senectutis  eum 
suae  paeniteret,  if  he  had  lived  to  his  himdredth  year, 
would  he  have  regretted  (and  now  be  regretting)  his  old 
age  ? 


Conditional  Sentences.  201 

3.  The  Apodosis  in  conditional  sentences  of  this  type  sometimes 
stands  in  the  Indicative  (Imperfect,  Perfect,  or  Pluperfect),  viz.— 

a)  Frequently  in   expressions  of  ability,  obligation,   or  neces- 
sity, as,— 

nisi  felicitas  in  socordiam  vertisset,  exuere  jugum 
potuerunt,  unless  their  prosperity  had  turned  to  folly, 
they  could  have  thrown  off  the  yoke ; 

NOTE.  —  In  sentences  of  this  type,  however,  it  is  not  the  possibility  that  is  repre- 
sented as  contrary-to-fact,  but  something  to  be  supplied  in  thought  from  the  context. 
Thus  in  the  foregoing  sentence  the  logical  apodosis  is  et  exuissent  understood 
(and  they  would  have  shaken  it  o/~).  When  the  possibility  itself  is  conditioned,  the 
Subjunctive  is  used. 

eum  patois  loco  colere  debebas,  si  ulla  in  te  pietas 
esset,  you  ought  to  revere  him  as  a  father,  if  you  had 
any  sense  of  devotion. 

b)  With  both  the  Periphrastic  Conjugations  ;  as,  — 

si  Fompejus  occisus  esset,  fuistisne  ad  arma  ituri,  if 

Pompey  had  been  slain,  would  you  have  proceeded  to 

arms  ? 
si   unum   diem    morati  essetis,   morieiidum    omnibus 

fuit,  if  you  had  delayed  one  day,  you  would  all  have 

had  to  die. 

Protasis  expressed  without  SI. 

305.    i.    The  Protasis  is  not  necessarily  expressed  by  a  clause  with 
si,  but  may  be  implied  in  a  single  word  or  phrase  ^  as,  — 
aliSqui  haec  n5n  scriberentur,  otherwise  (i.e.  if  matters  were  other- 
wise) these  things  would  not  be  written ; 

non  potestis,  voluptate  omnia  dirigentes,  retinere  virtutem,  you 
cannot  retain  virtue,  if  you  direct  everything  with  reference  to 
pleasure. 

2.    Sometimes  an  Imperative,  or  a  Jussive  Subjunctive  serves  as 
Protasis.     Thus:  — 
eras  petitS,  dabitur,  if  you  ask  to-morrow,  it  shall  be  given  yoii  (lit. 

ask  to-morrow,  etc.) ; 
haec  reputent,  videbunt,  if  they  consider  this,  they  will  see  (lit.  let 

them  consider,  etc.)', 
cave  haec  facias,  beware  not  to  do  this !     (Originally  :  do  this  !  then 

beware !  i.e.  if  you  do  it,  beware  I     Hence  beware  not  to  do  it!) 


2O2  Syntax. 

Use  of  Nisi,  SI  Non,  Sin. 

306.    I .   Nisi,  unless,  negatives  the  entire  protasis ;  si  non  nega- 
tives a  single  word  ;  as,  — 
ferreus  essem,  nisi  te  amarem,  /  should  be  hard-hearted  unless  1 

loved  you-,  but  — 
ferreus  essem,  si  te  non  amarem,  /  should  be  hard-hearted  if  /  did 

NOT  love  you. 

In  the  first  example,  it  is  the  notion  of  loving  you  that  is  negatived, 
in  the  second,  the  notion  of  loving. 

2.  Si  non  (si  minus)  must  be  employed :  — 

a)   When  an  apodosis  with  at,  tamen,  certe"  follows  ;  as,  — 
doldrem  si  non  potuero  frangere,  tamen  occultabd,  if 

I  cannot  crush  my  sorrow,  yet  I  will  hide  it. 

U)   When  an  affirmative  protasis  is  repeated  in  negative  form ; 
as,— 

si  feceris,  magnam  habebo  gratiam ;  si  11611  feceris, 
ignoscam,  if  you  do  it,  I  shall  be  deeply  grateful]  if  you 
do  not  do  it,  I  shall  pardon  you. 

a.    But  if  the  verb  is  omitted  in  the  repetition,  only  si  minus  is  admis- 
sible; as, — 
hoc  si  assecutus  sum,  gaudeo;  si  minus,  me  consoler,  if  I 

have  attained  this,  I  am  glad;  if  not,  I  console  myself. 

3.  Sin.     Where  one  protasis  is  followed  by  another  opposed  in 
meaning,  but  affirmative  in  form,  the  second  is  introduced  by  sin  ;  as,  — 
hunc  mini  timorem  eripe ;  si  verus  est,  ne  opprimar,  sin  falsjis, 

ut  timere  desinam,  relieve  me  of  this  fear ;  if  it  is  well 
founded,  that  I  may  not  be  destroyed',  but  if  it  is  groundless, 
that  I  may  cease  to  fear. 

4.  Nisi  has  a  fondness  for  combining  with  negatives  (non,  nemo, 
nihil)  ;  as,  — 

nihil  cogitavit  nisi  caedem,  he  had  no  thought  but  murder, 
a.    N5n  and  nisi  are  always  separated  in  the  best  Latinity. 

5.  Nisi  forte,  nisi  vero,  unless  perchance,  unless  indeed  (often 
with  ironical  force)  take  the  Indicative  ;  as,  — 

nisi  vero,  quia  perfecta  res  non  est,  non  videtur  punienda,  un- 
less indeed,  because  an  act  is  not  consummated,  it  does  not  seem 
to  merit  punishment. 


Clauses  of  Comparison. — Adversative  Clauses.      203 

Conditional  Clauses  of  Comparison. 

307.  i.    Conditional  Clauses  of  Comparison  are  intro- 
duced by  the  particles,  ac  si,  ut  si,  quasi,  quam  si,  tamquam 
si,  velut  si,  or  simply  by  velut  or  tamquam.     They  are  fol- 
lowed by  the  Subjunctive  mood  and  regularly  involve  an 
ellipsis,  as  indicated  in  the  following  examples :  — 

tantus  patres  metus  cepit,  velut  si  jam  ad  portas  hostis  esset,  as 

great  fear  seized  the  senators  as  (would  have  seized  them)  if  the 

enemy  were  already  at  the  gates  ; 
sed  quid  ego  his  testibus  utor  quasi  res  dubia  aut  obscura  sit, 

but  why  do  I  use  these  witnesses,  as  (/  should  do)  if  the  matter 

were  doubtful  or  obscure ; 
serviam  tibi  tamquam  si  emeris  me  argentd,  /  will  serve  you  as 

though  you  had  bought  me  for  money. 

2.  Note  that  in  sentences  of  this  kind  the  Latin  observes  the  regu- 
lar principles  for  the  Sequence  of  Tenses.  Thus  after  principal  tenses 
the  Latin  uses  the  Present  and  Perfect  (as  in  the  second  and  third  exam- 
ples), where  the  English  uses  the  Past  and  the  Past  Perfect. 

Concessive  Clauses. 

308.  The  term  *  Concessive '  is  best  restricted  to  those 
clauses   developed   from   the   Jussive    Subjunctive  which 
have  the  force  of  granted  that,  etc.  (see  §  275);  as,— 

sit  fur,  sit  sacrilegus,  at  est  bonus  imperator,  granted  that  he  is  a 
thief  and  a  robber,  yet  he  is  a  good  commander ; 

ut  hoc  verum  sit,  granted  that  this  is  true ; 

ne  sit  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est,  granted  that  pain 
is  not  the  greatest  evil,  yet  it  is  certainly  an  evil. 

a.     Here  also  belongs  the  use  of  the  Subjunctive  with  licet  (see  §  295,  6), 
where  licet  has  the  force  of  he  may,  they  may,  etc. ;  as,  — 
fremant  omnes  licet,  dicam  quod  sentio,  they  may  all  shout, 
(but)  1  shall  say  what  I  think. 

Adversative  Clauses  with  Quamvis,  Quamquam,  etc. 

309.  Clauses  introduced   by   quamvis,    quamquam,    etsi, 
tametsi,  cum,  although,  while   often   classed   as  '  Conces- 
sive/ are  yet  essentially  different  from  genuine  Concessive 


204  Syntax. 

clauses.  As  a  rule,  they  do  not  grant  or  concede  any- 
thing, but  rather  state  that  something  is  true  in  spite  of 
something  else.  They  accordingly  emphasize  the  adver- 
sative idea,  and  are  properly  Subordinate  Adversative 
Clauses.  The  different  particles  used  to  introduce  these 
clauses  have  different  meanings  and  take  different  con- 
structions, as  follows:  — 

1 .  Quamvis,  however  imich,  although,  does  not  introduce  a  state- 
ment of  fact,  but  represents  an  act  merely  as  conceived.     It  is  followed 
by  the  Subjunctive,  usually  of  the  present  tense ;  as?  — 

homines  quamvis  in  turbidis  rebus  sint,  tamen  interdum  animis 

relaxantur,  in  however  stirring  events  men  may  engage,  yet  at 

times  they  relax  their  energies ; 
non  est  potestas  opitulandi  rei  publicae  quamvis  ea  prematur 

periculis,  there  is  no  opportunity  to  succor  the  state,  though  it 

be  beset  by  dangers. 

2.  Quamquam,  etsi,  tametsi,  although,,  introduce  a  statement  of 
fact,  and  are  followed  by  the  Indicative  (of  any  tense)  ;  as, — 
quamquam  omnis  virtus  nos  allicit,  tamen  justitia  id  maxime 

efficit,  although  all  virtue  attracts  us,  yet  justice  does  so  espe- 
cially ; 

Caesar,  etsi  nondum  consilium  hostium  cognoverat,  tamen  id 
quod  accidit  suspicabatur,  Caesar,  though  he  did  not  yet  know 
the  plans  of  the  enemy,  yet  was  suspecting  what  actually  occurred. 

a.  Etsi,  although,  must  be  distinguished  from  etsi,  even  if.  The  latter 
is  a  conditional  particle  and  takes  any  of  the  constructions  admissible 
for  81.  (See  $$  302-304.) 

3.  Cum,  although,  is  followed  by  the  Subjunctive;  as, — 
Atticus  honores  non  petiit,  cum  ei  paterent,  Atticus  did  not  seek 

honors,  though  they  were  open  to  him. 

4.  Licet  sometimes  loses  its  verbal  force  (see  §  308,  a)  and  sinks  to 
the  level  of  a  conjunction  with  the  force  of  although.     It  takes  the 
Subjunctive,  Present  or  Perfect ;  as,  — 

licet  omnes  terrores  impeiideaiit,  succurram,  though  all  terrors 
hang  over  me,  (yet)  I  will  lend  aid. 

5.  Quamquam,  with  the  force  and  yet,  is  often  used  to  introduce 
principal  clauses  ;  as,  — 

quamquam  quid  loquor,  and  yet  why  do  I  speak? 


Clauses  of  Proviso.  —  Relative  Clauses.  205 

6.  In  post-Augustan  writers  quamquam  is  freely  construed  with  the  Sub- 
junctive, while  quamvis  is  often  used  to  introduce  statements  of  fact,  and  takes 
either  the  Indicative  or  the  Subjunctive.  Thus  :  — 

quamquam  moveretur  his  vocibus,  although  he  was  moved  by  these  words  ; 
quamvis  mult!  opinarentur,  though  many  thought ; 
quamvis  Infesto  animo  perveneras,  though  you  had  come  with  hostile  intent. 

Clauses  with  Dum,  Mo  do,  Dummodo,  denoting  a  Wish 
or  a  Proviso. 

310.  These  particles  are  followed  by  the  Subjunctive 
(negative  ne)  and  have  two  distinct  uses  :  — 

I.  They  are  used  to  introduce  clauses  embodying  a  wish 
entertained  by  the  subject  of  the  leading  verb;  as, — 
multl  honesta  neglegunt   dummodo   potentiam   consequantur, 

many  neglect  honor  hi  their  desire  to  obtain  power  (if  only  they 

may  attain} ; 
omnia  postposui,  dum  praeceptis  patris  parerem,  I  made  everything 

else  secondary,  in  my  desire  to  obey  the  injunctions  of  my  father ; 
nil  obstat  tibi,  dum  ne  sit  ditior  alter,  nothing  hinders  you  in  your 

desire  that  your  neighbor  may  not  be  richer  than  you. 

II.  They   are    used    to    express    a  proviso   (^provided 
that'}\  as,— 

oderint,  dum  metuant,  let  them  hate,  provided  they  fear ; 

manent  ingenia  senibus,  modo  permaneat  studium  et  industria, 

old  men  retain  their  faculties,  provided  only  they  retain  their 
interest  and  vigor ; 

nubant,  dum  ne  dos  fiat  comes,  let  them  marry,  provided  no  dowry 
goes  with  it. 

NOTE.  —  Of  these  two  uses  of  dum,  modo,  and  dummodo,  the  first  is  the 
original  one  ;  the  second  has  grown  out  of  the  first,  and  frequently  retains  the  origi- 
nal notion  of  wishing,  as  in  oderint,  dum  metuant. 

Relative  Clauses. 

311.  Relative  Clauses  are  introduced  by  Relative  Pro- 
nouns, Adjectives,  or  Adverbs. 

312.  i.    Relative  clauses  usually  stand   in   the    Indicative  Mood, 
especially  clauses  introduced  by  those  General    Relatives  which   are 
doubled  or  have  the  suffix  -cunque ;  as,  — 


206  Syntax. 

quidquid  id  est,  timeo  Danaos  et  dona  ferentes,  whatever  it  is,  1 
fear  the  Greeks  even  when  they  offer  gifts ; 

quidquid  oritur,  qualecunque  est,  causam  a  natura  habet,  what- 
ever comes  into  being,  of  whatever  sort  it  is,  has  its  primal  cause 
in  Nature. 

2.    Any  simple  Relative  may  introduce  a  conditional  sentence  of  any 

of  the  three  types  mentioned  in  §§  302-304;  as, — 

qui  hoc  dicit,  errat,  he  who  says  this  is  mistaken  (First  Type)  ; 

qui  hoc  dicat,  erret,  he  would  be  mistaken  who  should  say  this  (Sec- 
ond Type) ; 

qui  hoc  dixisset,  errasset,  the  man  who  had  said  this  would  have  been 
mistaken. 


INDIRECT   DISCOURSE    (ORATIO   OBLIQUA). 

313.  When  the  language  or  thought  of  any  person  is 
quoted  without  change,  that  is  called    Direct    Discourse 
(Ordtio  Recta)  \  as,  Caesar  said,  'The  die  is  cast!     When, 
on  the  other  hand,  one's  language  or  thought  is  made  to 
depend  upon  a  verb  of  saying,  thinking,  etc.,  that  is  called 
Indirect  Discourse  (Ordtio  Obliqud) ;  as,  Caesar  said  that 
the  die  was  cast ;    Caesar  thought   that   his   troops   were 
victorious. 

a.    For  the  verbs  most  frequently  employed  to  introduce  Indirect 
Discourse,  see  §  330. 

MOODS   IN   INDIRECT   DISCOURSE. 
Declaratory  Sentences. 

314.  i.    Declaratory  Sentences  upon  becoming  Indirect 
change  their  main  clause  to  the  Infinitive  with  Subject 
Accusative,  while  all  subordinate  clauses  take  the  Subjunc- 
tive; as, — 

Regulus  dixit  quam  din  jure  jurandS  hostium  teneretur  non  esse 
se  senatorem,  Regulus  said  that  as  long  as  he  was  held  by  his 
pledge  to  the  enemy  he  was  not  \a  senator.  (Direct :  quam  diu 
teneor  non  sum  senator.) 


Indirect  Discourse.  207 

2.  The  verb  of  saying,  thinking,  etc.,  is  sometimes  to  be  inferred 
from  the  context ;  as,  — 

turn  Romulus  legates  circa  vicinas  gentes  misit  qui  societatem 
conubiumque  peterent :  urbes  quoque, '  ut  cetera,  ex 
infimo  nasci,  then  Romulus  sent  envoys  around  among  the 
neighboring  tribes,  to  ask  for  alliance  and  the  right  of  inter- 
marriage, (saying  that)  cities,  like  everything  else,  start  from  a 
modest  beginning. 

3.  Subordinate  clauses  which  contain  an  explanatory  statement  of 
the  writer  are  not  properly  a  part  of  the  Indirect  Discourse,  and  hence 
regularly  take  the  Indicative  ;  as, — 

certior  factus  ex  ea  parte  vici,  quam  Gallis  concesserat,  omnes 
noctu  discessisse,  he  was  informed  that  all  had  departed  by 
night  from  that  part  of  the  village  which  he  had  granted  to  the 
Gauls. 

4.  Sometimes  a  subordinate  clause  is  such  only  in  its  external  form, 
and  in  sense  is  principal.     It  then  takes  the  Infinitive  with  Subject 
Accucative.     This  occurs  especially  in  case  of  relative  clauses,  where 
qui  is  equivalent  to  et  hie,  nam  hie,  etc. ;  as,  — 

dixit  urbem  Atheiiiensium  propugnaculum  oppositum  esse  bar- 
baris,  apud  quam  jam  bis  classes  regias  fecisse  naufra- 
gium,  he  said  the  city  of  the  Athenians  had  been  set  against  the 
barbarians  like  a  bulwark,  near  which\  —  and  near  it)  the  fleets 
of  the  King  had  twice  met  disaster. 

5.  The  Subject  Accusative  of  the  Infinitive  is  sometimes  omitted 
when   it   refers   to   the   same  person  as   the  subject  of  the   leading 
verb,  or  can  easily  be  supplied  from  the  context ;  as,  — 

cum  id  nescire  Mago  diceret,  when  Mago  said  he  did  not  know 
this  (for  se  nescire). 

Interrogative  Sentences. 

315.  i.  Real  questions  of  the  Direct  Discourse,  upon 
becoming  indirect,  are  regularly  put  in  the  Subjunc- 
tive; as, — 

Ariovistus  Caesari  respondit :  se  prius  in  Galliam  venisse  quam 
populum  Romarmm.  Quid  sibi  vellet  ?  Cur  in  suas 
possessiones  veniret,  Ariovistus  replied  to  Caesar  that  he 


208  Syntax. 

had  come  into  Gaul  before  the  Roman  people.  What  did  he 
(Caesar)  mean  ?  Why  did  he  come  into  his  domain  ?  (Direct : 
quid  tibi  vis  ?  cur  in  meas  possessiones  veins  ?) 

2.  Rhetorical  questions,  on  the  other  hand,  being  asked 
merely  for  effect,  and  being  equivalent  in  force  to  emphatic 
statements,  regularly  stand  in  the  Infinitive  in  Indirect  Dis- 
course.    Thus :  — 

quid  est  levius  (lit.  what  is  more  trivial,  —  nothing  is  more  trivial) 
of  the  Direct  Discourse  becomes  quid  esse  levius  in  the  In- 
direct. 

3.  Deliberative  Subjunctives  of  the  Direct  Discourse  remain  un- 
changed in  mood  in  the  Indirect ;  as,  — 

quid  faceret,  what  was  he  to  do  ?     (Direct :  quid  faciam?) 

Imperative  Sentences. 

316.  All   Imperatives   or   Jussive    Subjunctives   of   the 
Direct    Discourse    appear    as    Subjunctives    in    the    In- 
direct ;  as,  — 

milites    certiores    fecit    paulisper   intermitterent    proelium,    he 

told  the  soldiers  to  stop  the  battle  for  a  little.  (Direct: 
intermittite.) 

a.    The  Negative  in  such  sentences  is  lie  ;  as, — 

ne  suae  virtuti  tribueret,  let  him  not  attribute  it  to  his  own 
valor ! 

TENSES   IN   INDIRECT   DISCOURSE. 
A.    Tenses  of  the  Infinitive. 

317.  These  are  used   in   accordance  with   the   regular 
principles  for  the  use  of  the  Infinitive  as  given  in  §  270. 

a.    The  Perfect  Infinitive  may  represent  any  past  tense  of  the 
Indicative  of  Direct  Discourse.     Thus  :  — 

scio  te  haec  egissejnay  mean  — 

I  know  you  were  doing  this.     (Direct:  haec  agebas.) 

I  know  you  did  this.  (Direct:  haec  egisti.) 

I  know  you  had  done  this.         (Direct:  haec  egeras.) 


Indirect  Discourse.  209 

B.    Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive. 

318.  These  follow  the  regular  principle  for  the  Sequence 
of  Tenses,  being  Principal  if  the  verb  of  saying  is  Princi- 
pal ;  Historical  if  it  is  Historical.  Yet  for  the  sake  of 
vividness,  we  often  find  the  Present  Subjunctive  used 
after  an  historical  tense  ;  as,  - 

Caesar  respondit,  si  obsides  dentur,  sese  pacem  esse  facturum, 

Caesar  replied  that,  if  hostages  should  be  given  him,  he  would 
make  peace. 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES    IN   INDIRECT   DISCOURSE. 
Conditional  Sentences  of  the  First  Type. 

319.  A.  THE  APODOSIS.  Any  tense  of  the  Indicative 
is  changed  to  the  corresponding  tense  of  the  Infinitive 

(§§  270;  317.*)-  \9  £ 

B.  THE  PROTASIS.  The  protasis  takes  those  tenses  of 
the  Subjunctive  which  are  required  by  the  Sequence 
of  Tenses. 

Examples  :  — 

DIRECT.  INDIRECT. 

si  hoc  crSdis,  erras,  j  dlc6>  sl  *8c  Crgd5S>  t6  err5re  ; 

[  dixi,  si  hoc  crederes,  te  errare. 


si  hoc  credes,  errabis,         j  dlc6>  sl  h6c  Crgd5s>  t 

1  dixi,  si  hoc  crederes,  te  erraturum  esse. 

f  dlco,  si  hoc  crediderTs,  te  erraturum 

si  hoc  credideris,  errabis,  '  ^_  ess_e  [_ 

Ldixi,  si  hoc  credidisses,  te  erraturum 

I       esse. 

si  hoc  credSbas,  erravisti,  {  dlc6'  sluh5c  <^deres,  te  erravisse; 

[  dixi,  si  hoc  crederes,  te  erravisse. 

a.  Note  that  a  Future  Perfect  Indicative  of  the  Direct  Discourse 
regularly  appears  in  the  Indirect  as  a  Perfect  Subjunctive  after 
a  principal  tense,  and  as  a  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  after  an  his- 
torical tense. 


2io  Syntax. 

Conditional  Sentences  of  the  Second  Type. 

320.  A.    THE  APODOSIS.      The  Present  Subjunctive  of 
the  Direct  Discourse  regularly  becomes  the  Future  Infini- 
tive of  the  Indirect. 

B.   THE  PROTASIS.     The  Protasis  takes  those  tenses  of 
the  Subjunctive  demanded  by  the  sequence  of  tenses. 
Examples :  — 

si  hoc  credas,  erres,  I  dlc5>  sl  h5c  crgdts> t€  *rraturum  esse  ; 
[  dixl,  si  hoc  crederes,  te  erraturum  esse. 

Conditional  Sentences  of  the  Third  Type. 

321.  A.   THE  APODOSIS. 

i.   The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  of  the  Direct  Discourse 
becomes :  — 

d)    In  the  Active  Voice  the  Future  Infinitive. 
b)    In  the  Passive  Voice  it  takes  the  form  futurum  esse  (fore) 
lit,  with  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive. 

2.    The  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  of  the  Direct  Discourse 
becomes :  — 

d)    In  the  Active  Voice  the  Infinitive  in  -urus  fuisse. 
b)    In  the  Passive  Voice  it  takes  the  form  futurum  fuisse  ut 
with  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive. 

B.    THE  PROTASIS.     The   protasis   in  Conditional  Sen- 
tences of  this  type  always  remains  unchanged. 
Examples :  — 

si  hoc  crederes,  errares,  dico  (dixl),  si  hoc  crederes,  te  erra- 

turum esse ; 

si  hoc  credidisses,  erravisses,  dico  (dixl),  si  hoc  credidisses,  te 

erraturum  fuisse ; 

si  hoc  dixisses,  punitus  esses,  dico  (dixi ),  si  hoc  dixisses  futu- 
rum fuisse  ut  punireris. 

322.  When  an  apodosis  of  a  conditional  sentence  of  the  Third 
Type  referring  to  the  past  is  at  the  same  time  a  Result  clause,  or  a 


Indirect  Discourse.  2 1 1 

quin-clause  (after  non  dubito,  etc.),  it  stands  in  the  Perfect  Sub- 
junctive in  the  form  -urus  f uerim  ;  as,  — 

ita  territi  sunt,  ut  arma  tradituri  fuerint,1  nisi  Caesar  subit5 
advenisset,  they  were  so  frightened  that  they  would  have  given 
up  their  arms,  had  not  Caesar  suddenly  arrived] 

non  dubitS  quin,  si  hoc  dixisses,  erraturus  fueris,1  /  do  not  doubt 
that,  if  you  had  said  this,  you  would  have  made  a  mistake. 

a.  This  peculiarity  is  confined  to  the  Active  Voice.     In  the 
Passive,   such    sentences,   when    they  become    dependent, 
remain  unchanged ;  as,  — 

non  dubito  quin,  si  hoc  dixisses,  vituperatus  esses,  7 
do  not  doubt  that,  if  you  had  said  this,  you  would  have 
been  blamed. 

b.  When  an  Indirect  Question  becomes  an  apodosis  in  a  con- 
ditional sentence  of  the  Third  Type,  either  -urus  fuerim  or 
-urus  f uissem  may  be  used ;  as,  —     . 

quaere,  num,  si  hoc  dixisses,  erraturus  fueris  (or 
fuisses). 

c.  Potui,  when  it  becomes  a  dependent  apodosis  in  sentences  of  this 
Type,  usually  changes  to  the  Perfect  Subjunctive ;  as.  — 
concursu  totius  civitatis  defensi  sunt,  ut  frigidissimos 

quoque  6rat5res  popull  studia  excitare   potuerint, 

they  were  defended  before  a  gathering  of  all  the  citizens,  so  that 
the  interest  of  the  people  would  have  been  enough  to  excite  even 
the  most  apathetic  orators. 


IMPLIED  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

323.    The  Subjunctive  is  often  used  in  subordinate  clauses  whose 
Indirect  character  is  merely  implied  by  the  context;  as, — 
demonstrabantur  mini  praeterea,  quae  Socrates  de  immortali- 
tate  animorum  disseruisset,  there  were  explained  to  me  be- 
sides, the  arguments  which  Socrates  had  set  forth  concerning  the 
immortality  of  the  soul  (i.e.  the  arguments  which,  it  was  said, 
Socrates  had  set  forth)  ; 

Paetus  omnes  libros  quos  pater  suus  reliquisset  mini  donavit, 
Paetus  gave  me  all  the  books  which  (as  he  said)  his  father  had  left. 

i  Tradituri  fuerint  and  erraturus  fueris  are  to  be  regarded  as  repre- 
senting traditiiri  fuerunt  and  erraturus  fuisti  of  Direct  Discourse.  (See 
§3<H,  3,  <*)• 


2 1 2  Syntax. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  BY  ATTRACTION. 

324.  i.  Subordinate  clauses  dependent  upon  the  Sub- 
junctive are  frequently  attracted  into  the  same  mood, 
especially  when  they  do  not  express  a  fact,  but  constitute 
an  essential  part  of  one  complex  idea  ;  as,  — 

nemo  avarus  adhuc  inventus  est,  cui,  quod  haberet,  esset  satis, 
no  miser  has  yet  been  found  who  was  satisfied  with  what  he 
had  ; 

cum  diversas  causas  afferrent,  dum  for  mam  sui  quisque  et 
aiiimi  et  ingenii  redderent,  as  they  brought  forward  differ- 
ent arguments,  while  each  mirrored  his  own  individual  type  of 
mind  and  natural  bent. 

quod  ego  fatear,  pudeat,  should  I  be  ashamed  of  a  thing  which  I 
admit? 

2.    Similarly  a   subordinate   clause   dependent   upon  an  Infinitive 
is   put   in   the   Subjunctive   when   the  two   form   one   closely  united 
whole ;  as,  — 
mos  est  Athenis  quotannis  in  contione  laudari  eos  qui  sint  in 

proeliis  interfecti,  it  is  the  custom  at  Athens  every  year  for 

those  to  be  publicly  eulogized  who  have  been  killed  in   battle. 

(Here  the  notion  of  ' praising  those  who  fell  in  battle'  forms 

an  inseparable  whole.) 


NOUN  AND  ADJECTIVE  FORMS  OP  THE  VERB. 

325.  These  are  the  Infinitive,  Participle,  Gerund,  and 
Supine.  All  of  these  partake  of  the  nature  of  the  Verb, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  Noun  or  Adjective,  on  the 
other.  Thus :  - 

As  Verbs, — 

a)  They  may  be  limited  by  adverbs  ; 

b)  They  admit  an  object ; 

c)  They  have  the  properties  of  voice  and  tense. 

As  Nouns  or  Adjectives,  — 

a)  They  are  declined  ; 

b)  They  take  Noun  or  Adjective  constructions. 


Noun  and  Adjective  Forms  of  the   Verb.  213 

THE   INFINITIVE. 
Infinitive  without  Subject  Accusative. 

326.  This  may  be  used  either  as  Subject  or  Object. 

NOTE.  —  The  Infinitive  was  originally  a  Dative,  and  traces  of  this  are  still  to  be 
seen  in  the  poetical  use  of  the  Infinitive  to  express  purpose;  as,  nee  dulces  occur- 
rent  oscula  natl  praeripere,  and  no  sweet  children  will  run  to  snatch  kisses. 

A.    As  Subject. 

327.  i.    The   Infinitive  without   Subject   Accusative   is 
used  as  the  Subject  of  esse  and  various  impersonal  verbs, 
particularly  opus   est,  necesse   est,   oportet,   juvat,   delectat, 
placet,  libet,  licet,  praestat,  conducit,  expedit,   decet,  pudet, 
interest,  etc. ;  as,  — 

dulce  et  decSrum  est  pro  patria  mori,  //  is  sweet  and  noble  to  die 

for  one^s  country ; 
virorum  est  fortium  toleranter  dolorem  pati,  //  is  the  part  of  brave 

men  to  endure  pain  with  patience ; 
seiiatui  placuit  legatos  mittere,  the  Senate  decided  (\&.  it  pleased  the 

Senate}  to  send  envoys. 

2.    Even  though  the  Infinitive  itself  appears  without  Subject,  it  may 
take  a  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective  in  the  Accusative ;  as,— 
aliud  est  iracundum  esse,  aliud  iraturn,  //  is  one  thing  to  be  irascible, 

another  to  be  angry ; 
impune  quaelibet  facere,  id  est  regem  esse,  to  do  whatever  you 

please  with  impunity,  that  is  to  be  a  king. 

a.  But  when  licet  is  followed  by  a  Dative  of  the  person,  a  Predicate 
Noun  or  Adjective  with  esse  is  attracted  into  the  same  case;  as, 
licuit  esse  otioso  Themistocli,  lit.  it  was  permitted  to  Themisto- 
cles  to  be  at  leisure.  So  sometimes  with  other  Impersonals. 

B.    As  Object. 

328.  i.    The    Infinitive  without   Subject  Accusative   is 
used  as  the  Object  of  many  verbs,  to  denote  another  action 
of  the  same  subject,  particularly  after  — 

possum,    debeo ;    volo,    nolo,      cogito,  meditor,///r/^^,  intend', 

malo,  cupio  ;  neglego,  neglect ; 

statuo,  coiistituo,  decide  ;  vereor,  timeo,fear ; 


214  Syntax. 

audeS,  dare ;  mature,  festino,  propero,  con- 

studeo,  contends,  strive ;  tendo,  hasten  ; 

pard,  prepare  (so  paratus)  ;  assuescd,  cSnsuesco,  accustom 

incipio,  coepi,  instituo,  begin  ;  myself  (so  assuetus,  msuetus, 

pergS,  continue ;  assuefactus)  ; 

desiiio,  desisto,  cease ;  disco,  learn  ; 

cunctor,  delay  ;  sciS,  know  how ; 

conor,  try ;  soleS,  am  wont ;  as,  — 

tu  hos  intueri  audes,  do  you  dare  to  look  on  these  men  f 
Demosthenes  ad  fluctum  maris  declamare  solebat,  Demosthenes 
used  to  declaim  by  the  waves  of  the  sea. 

2.    A  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective  with  these  Infinitives  is  attracted 
into  the  Nominative  ;  as,  — 
beatus  esse  sine  virtute  nemo  potest,  no  one  can  be  happy  without 

virtue ; 
CatS  esse  quam  videri  bonus  malebat,  Cato  preferred  to  be  good 

rather  than  to  seem  so. 


Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative. 

329.  This  may  be  used  either  as  Subject  or  Object. 

A.    As  Subject. 

330.  The  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative  (like  the 
simple  Infinitive)  appears  as  Subject  with  esse  and  Imper- 
sonal verbs,  particularly  with  aequum  est,  justum  est,  utile 
est,  turpe  3st,  apertum  est,  perspicuum  est,  fama  est,  opiniS 
est,  spes  est,  fas  est,  nefas  est,  opus  est,  necesse  est,  oportet, 
apparet,  cSnstat,  praestat,  etc.  ;   as,  — 

nihil  in  bello  oportet  contemn!,  nothing  ought  to  be  despised  in  war ; 
apertum  est  sibi  quemque  natura  esse  carum,  it  is  manifest  that 
by  nature  everybody  is  dearest  to  himself. 

B.    As  Object. 

331.  The  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative  is  used  as 
Object  after  the  following  classes  of  verbs :  — 

I.    Most  frequently  after  verbs  of  saying,  thinking,  knowing,  per- 
ceiving, and  the  like  (Verba  Sentiendl  et  Declarandt).     This  is  the 


Noun  and  Adjective  Forms  of  the  Verb.  215 

regular  construction  of  Principal  Clauses  of  Indirect  Discourse.  Verbs 
that  take  this  construction  are,  among  others,  the  following :  sentio, 
audio,  video,  cognosce ;  puto,  judico,  spero,  confido ;  scio, 
memini;  dico,  affirms,  nego  (say  that  .  .  .  not),  trado,  narro, 
fateor,  responded,  scribo,  promitto,  glorior.  Also  the  phrases : 
certiorem  facid  (inform),  memoria  teneo  (remember),  etc. 
Examples :  — 

Epicure!  putant  cum  corporibus  simul  animos  interire,  the  Epi- 
cureans think  that  the  soul  perishes  with  the  body ; 

Thales  dixit  aquam  esse  initium  rerum,  Thales  said  that  water  was 
the  first  principle  of  the  universe ; 

Democritus  negat  quicquid  esse  sempiternum,  Democritus  says 
nothing  is  everlasting] 

spero  eum  ventiirum  esse,  /  hope  that  he  will  come. 

II.  With  jubeo,  order,  and  veto,  forbid;  as, — 

Caesar  milites  pontem  facere  jussit,  Caesar  ordered  the  soldiers  to 
make  a  bridge. 

a.  When  the  name  of  the  person  who  is  ordered  or  forbidden  to  do 
something  is  omitted,  the  Infinitive  with  jubeo  and  veto  is  put  in 
the  Passive ;  as,  Caesar  pontem  fieri  jussit. 

III.  With  patior  and  sino,  permit,  allow ;  as,  — 

nullo  se  implicari  negotio  passus  est,  he  did  not  permit  himself  to 
be  involved  in  any  difficulty. 

IV.  With  volo,  nolo,  malo,  cupio,  when  the  Subject  of  the  Infini- 
tive is  different  from  that  of  the  governing  verb  ;  as,  —  • 

nee  mihi  hunc  errorem  extorqueri  volo,  nor  do  1 wish  this  error  to 

be  wrested  from  me ; 
eas  res  jactari  iiolebat,  he  was  unwilling  that  these  matters  should  be 

discussed ; 
te  tuis  divitiis  frui  cupimus,  we  desire  that  you  enjoy  your  wealth. 

a.  When  the  Subject  of  both  verbs  is  the  same,  the  simple  Infinitive  is 
regularly  used  in  accordance  with  §  328,  i.     But  exceptions  occur,  es- 
pecially in  case  of  esse  and  Passive  Infinitives ;  as,  — 

cupio  me  esse  clementem,  I  desire  to  be  lenient; 
Timoleon  maluit  se  dlligl  quam  metui,  Timoleon  preferred  to 
be  loved  rather  than  feared. 

b.  Volo   and  nolo    also   admit   the   Subjunctive,  with   or  without  ut. 
(See  §  296,  i,  a.) 


2 1 6  Syntax. 

V.  With  Verbs  of  emotion  (joy,  sorrow,   regret,   etc.),   especially 
gaudeo,  laetor,  doleo  ;  aegre  fero,  moleste  fero,  graviter  fero,  am 
annoyed,  distressed;  miror,  queror,  indignor  ;  as,  — 

gaudeo  te  salvum  ad  venire,  I  rejoice  that  you  arrive  safely ; 

noil  moleste  ferunt  se  libidinum  vinculis  laxatos  esse,  they  are 

not  troubled  at  being  released  from  the  bonds  of  pas-sion  ; 
miror  te  ad  me  iiihil  scribere,  /  wonder  that  you  write  me  nothing. 

a.     Instead  of  an  Infinitive  these  verbs  also  sometimes  admit  a  quod- 
clause  as  Object.     (See  §  299.)     Thus  :  — 
miror  quod  non  loqueris,  /  wonder  that  you  do  not  speak. 

VI.  Some  verbs  which  take  two  Accusatives,  one  of  the  Person  and 
the  other  of  the  Thing  (§  178,  i)  may  substitute  an  Infinitive  for  the 
second  Accusative  ;  as,  — 

cogo  te  hoc  f acere,  /  compel  you  to  do  this  (cf.  te  hoc  c6go)  ; 
docui  te  contentum  esse,  /  taught  you  to  be  content  (cf.  te  modes- 
tiam  docui,  I  taught  you  temperance). 

Passive  Construction  of  the  Foregoing  Verbs. 

332.  Those  verbs  which  in  the  Active  are  followed  by 
the.  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative,  usually  admit  the 
personal  construction  in  the  Passive.  This  is  true  of  the 
following :  — 

a)  jubeor,  vetor,  sinor  ;  as,  — 

milites  pontem  f  acere  jussi  sunt,  the  soldiers  were  ordered 

to  build  a  bridge ; 

pons  fieri  jussus  est,  a  bridge  was  ordered  built ; 
milites  castris  exire  vetiti  sunt,  the  troops  were  forbidden 

to  go  out  of  the  camp ; 
Sestius  Clodium  accusare    11011    est   situs,  Sestius  was 

not  allowed  to  accuse  Clodius. 

b)  vide  or,  /  am  seen,  I  seem ;  as, — 

videtur  comperisse,  he  seems  to  have  discovered. 

c)  dicor,  putor,  existimor,  judicor  (in  all  persons) ;  as,  — 
dicitur  in  Italian!  venisse,  he  is  said  to  have  come  into 

Italy; 

Romulus  primus  rex  Romanorum  fuisse  putatur,  Romu- 
lus is  thought  to  have  been  the  first  king  of  the  Romans. 


Noun  and  Adjective  Forms  of  the  Verb.  217 

« 
d)    fertur,  feruntur,  traditur,  traduntur  (only  in  the  third 

person)  ;  as,  — 
fertur  Homerus  caecus  fuisse,  Homer  is  said  to  have  been 

blind , 
carmina  Archilochi  contumeliis  referta  esse  traduntur, 

ArcJulochusrs  poems  are  reported  to  have  been  full  of 

abuse. 

NOTE.  —  In  compound  tenses  and  periphrastic  forms,  the  last  two  classes  of 
verbs,  <:),  d)t  more  commonly  take  the  impersonal  construction;  as, — 
traditum  est  Homerum  caecum  fuisse,  the  story  goes  that  Homer  was 
blind. 

Infinitive  "with  Adjectives. 

333.  The  Infinitive  with  Adjectives  (except  paratus,  assuetus, 
etc. ;  see  §  328,   i )  occurs  only  in  poetry  and  post- Augustan  prose 
writers ;  as,  — 

contentus  demoiistrasse,  contented  to  have  proved '; 
audax  omnia  perpeti,  bold  for  enduring  everything. 

Infinitive  in  Exclamations. 

334.  The  Infinitive  is  used  in  Exclamations  implying  scorn,  indig- 
nation, or  regret.    An  interrogative  (or  intensive)  -ne  is  often  attached 
to  some  word  in  the  clause.     Examples  :  — 

huncine  solem  tarn  nigrum  surrexe  mini,  to  think  that  to-day^s  sun 

rose  with  such  evil  omen  for  me ! 
sedere  totos  dies  in  villa,  to  stay  whole  days  at  the  villa ! 

Historical  Infinitive. 

335.  The  Infinitive  is  often  used  in  historical  narrative  instead  of 
the  Imperfect  Indicative;  as, — 

interim  cottidie  Caesar  Aeduos  frumentum  flagitare,  meanwhile 
Caesar  was  daily  demanding  grain  of  the  Aedui. 


PARTICIPLES. 
Tenses  of  the  Participle. 

336.  i.  The  tenses  of  the  Participle,  like  those  of  the 
Infinitive  (see  §  270),  express  time  not  absolutely,  but  with 
reference  to  the  verb  upon  which  the  Participle  depends. 


2 1 8  Syntax. 

2.  The  Present  Participle  denotes  action  contemporary  with  that  of 
the  verb.     Thus  :  — 

audio  te  loquentem  =you  ARE  speaking  and  I  hear  you ; 
audiebam  te  loquentem  =you  WERE  speaking  and  I  heard you ; 
audiam  te  loquentem  —yoti  WILL  BE  speaking  and  I  shall  hear  you. 

a.    The  Present  Participle  is  sometimes  employed  with  Conative 
force ;  as,  — 

assurgentem  regem  resupinat,  as  the  king  was  trying  to 
rise,  he  threw  him  down. 

3.  The  Perfect  Passive  Participle  denotes  action  prior  to  that  of 
the  verb.     Thus  :  — 

locutus  taceo  =  /HAVE  spoken  and  am  silent ; 
locutus  tacui  =  /HAD  spoken  and  then  was  silent; 
locutus  tacebo  =  /  SHALL  speak  and  then  shall  be  silent. 

4.  The  absolute  time  of  the  action  of  a  participle,  therefore,  is 
determined  entirely  by  the  finite  verb  with  which  it  is  connected. 

5.  Certain    Perfect   Passive   Participles    of    Deponent   and    Semi- 
Deponent  Verbs  are  used  as  Presents  ;  viz.  arbitratus,  ausus,  ratus, 
gavisus,  solitus,  usus,  confisus,  diffisus,  secutus. 

Use  of  Participles. 

337.    As  an  Adjective  the  Participle  may  be  used  either 
as  an  attributive  or  predicate  modifier  of  a  Substantive. 

1.  Attributive  Use.     This  presents  no  special  peculiarities.     Ex- 
amples are :  — 

gloria  est  consentiens  laus  bonorum,  glory  is  the  unanimous  praise 

of  the  good; 
Conon  muros  a  Lysandro  dirutSs  reficit,  Conon  restored  the  walls 

destroyed  by  Lysander. 

2.  Predicate   Use.     Here   the   Participle   is   often  equivalent  to  a 
subordinate  clause.     Thus  the  Participle  may  denote  :  — 

a)  Time  ;  as,  — 

omne   malum   nasceiis  facile   opprimitur,  'every  evil  is 
easily  crushed  at  birth. 

b)  A  Condition  ;  as,  — 

mente  uti  non  possumus  cibo  et  potione  completi,  if 

gorged  with  food  and  drink,  we  cannot  use  our  intellects. 


Noun  and  Adjective  Forms  of  the  Verb.  219 

'  c)    Manner;  as, — 

Solon  senescere  se  dicebat  multa  in  dies  addiscentem, 

Solon  said  he  grew  old  learning  many  new  things  every 
day. 

d)  Means  ;  as,  — 

sol  oriens  diem  conficit,  the  sun,  by  its  rising,  makes  the 
day. 

e)  Opposition  (<  though ')  ;  as,  — 

meiidaci  homini  ne  verum  quidem  dicenti  credimus. 
we  do  not  believe  a  liar,  though  he  speaks  the  truth. 

f)    Cause  ;  as,  — 

perfidiam  veritus  ad  suos  recessit,  since  he  feared 
treachery,  he  returned  to  his  own  troops. 

3.  Video  and  audio,  besides  the  Infinitive,  take  the  Present  Par- 
ticiple in  the  Predicate  use ;  as,  — 

video  te  fugientem,  I  see  you  fleeing, 
a.    So  frequently  facio,  fingo,  induco  ;  as, — 

els  Catonem  respondentem  facimus,  we  represent  Cato  reply- 
ing to  them  ; 

Homerus  Laertem  colentem  agrum  facit,  Hotrrer  represents 
Laertes  tilling  the  field. 

4.  The  Future  Active  Participle  (except  futiirus)  is  regularly  con- 
fined to  its  use  in  the  Periphrastic  Conjugation,  but  in  post-Augustan 
writers  it  is  used  independently,  especially  to  denote  purpose ;  as,  — 

venerunt  castra  oppugnaturi,  they  came  to  assault  the  camp. 

5.  The  Perfect  Passive  Participle  in  combination  with  a  noun  is 
sometimes  equivalent   to  an  abstract   noun  with  a  dependent  Geni- 
tive ;  as,  — 

post  urbem  conditam,  after  the  founding  of  the  city ; 

Quinctius  defensus,  the  defense  of  Quinctius ; 

quibus  animus  occupatus,  the  preoccupation  of  the  mind  with  which', 

non  redditae  res,  the  failure  to  make  restitution. 

6.  Habeo  sometimes  takes  a  Perfect  Passive  Participle  in  the  Pred- 
icate construction  with  a  force  not  far  removed  from  that  of  the  Perfect 
or  Pluperfect  Indicative  ;  as, — 

copias  quas  coactas  habebat,  the  forces  which  he  had  collected. 


22O  Syntax. 

7.  The  Gerundive  denotes  obligation  or  necessity.     Like  other  Par- 
ticiples it  may  be  used  either  as  Attributive  or  Predicate. 

a)  Less  frequently  as  Attributive.     Thus  :  — 
liber  legendus,  a  book  worth  reading ; 

leges  observandae,  laws  deserving  of  observance. 

b)  More  frequently  as  Predicate. 

1)  In   the  Passive  Periphrastic  Conjugation  (amandus 
est,  etc.).     In  this  use  Intransitive  Verbs  can  be  used  only 
impersonally,   but    admit    their  ordinary   case-construction 
(Gen.,  Dat.,  Abl.)  ;  as,  — 

veniendum  est,  it  is  necessary  to  come*, 

obliviscendum  est  injuriarum,  one  must  forget  injuries ; 

numquam  proditori  credendum  est,  you  must  never  trust 

a  traitor ; 
suo  cuique  utendum  est  judici6>  every  man  must  use  his 

own  judgment. 

2)  After  euro,  provide  for ;  d5,  tradS,  give  over ;  relin- 
quo,  leave ;  concede,  hand  over ;  suscipio,  undertake,  and 
some  other  verbs,  to  denote  purpose  ;  as,  — 

Caesar  pontem  in  Arare  faciendum  curavit,  Caesar  pro- 
vided for  the  construction  of  a  bridge  over  the  Arar ; 

imperator  urbem  militibus  diripiendam  concessit,  the 
general  handed  over  the  city  to  the  soldiers  to  plunder. 

8.  For  the  Gerundive  as  the  equivalent  of  the  Gerund,  see  §  339,  i. 

THE   GERUND. 

338.    As  a  verbal  noun  the  Gerund  admits  noun  con- 
structions as  follows :  — 

i.    Genitive.     The  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  is  used — 

a)  With   nouns,  as   Objective   or  Appositional   Genitive  (see 
§§  200,  202)  ;  as,  — 

cupiditas  dominandi,  desire  of  ruling ; 
ars  scribendi,  the  art  of  writing. 

b)  With  Adjectives  ;  as,  — 

cupidus  audiendi,  desirous  of  hearing. 

c)  With  causa,  gratia  ;  as, — 

discendi  causa,  for  the  sake  of  learning. 

i 


Noun  and  Adjective  Forms  of  the  Verb.  221 

2.  Dative.     The  Dative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  — 

a)  With  Adjectives  ;  as,  — 

aqua  utilis  est  bibendo,  water  is  useful  for  drinking. 

b)  With  Verbs  (rarely);  as,— 

adf ui  scribendo,  /  was  present  at  the  writing. 

3.  Accusative.     The  Accusative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  only  with 
Prepositions,  chiefly  ad  and  in  ;  as,  — 

homo  ad  agendum  natus  est,  man  is  born  for  action. 

4.  Ablative.     The  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  — 

a)  Without  a  Preposition,  as  an  Ablative  of  Means,  Cause,  etc'. 
(see  §§218,219);  as,— 

mens  discendo  alitur  et  cogitando,  the  mind  is  nourished 
by  learning  and  reflection. 

Themistocles  maritimos  praedones  consectando  mare 
tutum  reddidit,  Themistocles  made  the  sea  safe  by  fol- 
lowing up  the  pirates. 

b)  After  the  prepositions  a,  de,  ex,  in  ;  as,  — 

summa  voluptas  ex  discendo  capitur,  the  keenest  pleas- 
ure is  derived  frotn  learning '; 

multa  de  bene  beateque  vivendo  a  Platone  disputata 
sunt,  there  was  much  discussion  by  Plato  on  the  subject 
of  living  well  and  happily. 

5.  As  a  rule,  only  the  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  and  the  Ablative 
(without  a  preposition)  admit  a  Direct  Object. 

Gerundive  Construction  instead  of  the  Gerund. 

339.  i.  Instead  of  the  Genitive  or  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  with  a 
Direct  Object,  another  construction  may  be,  and  very  often  is,  used. 
This  consists  in  putting  the  Direct  Object  in  the  case  of  the  Gerund 
(Gen.  or  Abl.)  and  using  the  Gerundive  in  agreement  with  it.  This 
is  called  the  Gerundive  Construction.  Thus  :  — 

GERUND  CONSTRUCTION.  GERUNDIVE  CONSTRUCTION. 

cupidus  urbem  videndi,  desirous} 

of  seeing  the  city ;  \  °»PW«"  «*to  videndae  ; 

dSlector  61  Stores  legendo.  /  am  )   . 

charmedwithreadingtheorators.  ]  dglector  oratoribus  legendis. 


222  Syntax. 

2.  The  Gerundive  Construction  must  be  used  to  avoid  a  Direct 
Object  with  the  Dative  of  the  Gerund,  or  with  a  case  dependent  upon 
a  Preposition  ;  as,  — 

locus  castris  muniendis  aptus,  a  place  adapted  to  fortifying  a  camp-, 
ad  pacem  peteiidam  venerunt,  they  came  to  ask  peace ; 
multum  temporis  consume  in  legendis  poetis,  /  spend  much  time 
in  reading  the  poets. 

3.  In  order  to  avoid  ambiguity  (see  §  236,  2),  the  Gerundive  Con- 
struction must  not  be  employed   in  case  of  Neuter  Adjectives  used 
substantively.     Thus  regularly  — 

philosophi  cupidi  sunt  verjim  investigandi,  philosophers  are  eager 
for  discovering  truth  (rarely  veri  investlgandi)  ; 

studium  plura  cognoscendi,  a  desire  of  knowing  more  (not  plurium 
cognoscendorum) . 

4.  From  the  nature  of  the  case  only  Transitive  Verbs  can  be  used 
in  the  Gerundive  Construction ;  but  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior  (orig- 
inally transitive)  regularly  admit  it ;  as,  — 

hostes  in  spem  potiuiidorum  castrorum  venerant,  the  enemy  had 
conceived  the  hope  of  gaming  possession  of  the  camp. 

5.  The  Genitives  mei,  tui,  sui,  nostri,  vestri,  when  used  in  the 
Gerundive  Construction,  are  regularly  employed  without  reference  to 
Gender  or  Number,  since  they  were  originally  Neuter  Singular  Adjec- 
tives used  substantively.     Thus  :  — 

mulier  sui  servandi  causa  aufugit,  the  woman  fled  for  the  sake  of 

saving  herself; 
legati  in  castra  venerunt  sui  purgandi  causa,  the  envoys  came  into 

camp  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  themselves  ; 
So  nostri  servandi  causa,  for  the  sake  of  saving  ourselves . 

6.  Occasionally  the  Genitive  of  the  Gerundive  Construction  is  used 
to  denote  purpose ;  as,  — 

si  arborum  trunci  sive  naves  deiciendi  operis  essent  a  barbaris 
missae,  if  trunks  of  trees  or  boats  should  be  sent  down  by  the 
barbarians  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  structure. 

7.  The  Dative  of  the  Gerundive  Construction  occurs  in  some  ex- 
pressions which  have  the  character  of  formulas ;  as,  — 
decemviri  legibus  scribundis,  decemvirs  for  codifying  the  laws  ; 
quindecimviri  sacris  faciundis,  quindecemvirs  for  performing  the 

sacrifices. 


Coordinate  Conjunctions.  223 

THE   SUPINE. 

340.  i.  The  Supine  in  -um  is  used  after  Verbs  of  motion  to  express 
purpose;  as, — 

legati  ad  Caesarem  gratulatum  convenerunt,  envoys  came  to  Cae- 
sar to  congratulate  him. 

a.  The  Supine  in  -um  may  take  an  Object ;  as,  — 

pacem  petitum  oratores  Romam  mittunt,  they  send  en- 
voys to  Rome  to  ask  for  peace. 

b.  Note  the  phrase  :  — 

do  (colloco)  filiam  nuptum,  /  give  my  daughter  in  mar- 
%  riage. 

2.  The  Supine  in  -u  is  used  as  an  Ablative  of  Specification  with 
facilis,  difficilis,  incredibilis,  jucundus,  optimus,  etc. ;  also  with 
fas  est,  nef as  est,  opus  est ;  as,  — 

haec  res  est  facilis  cognitu,  this  thing  is  easy  to  learn  ; 

hoc  est  optimum  factu,  this  is  best  to  do. 

a.  Only  a  few  Supines  in  -u  are  in  common  use,  chiefly  auditu, 
cognitu,  dictu,  factu,  visu. 

b.  The  Supine  in  -u  never  takes  an  Object. 


CHAPTER  VI.  —  Particles. 

COORDINATE    CONJUNCTIONS. 

341.   Copulative   Conjunctions.      These  join   one  word, 
phrase,  or  clause  to  another. 

i.    d)    et  simply  connects. 

b)  -que  joins  more  closely  than  et,  and  is  used  especially  where 
the  two  members  have  an  internal  connection  with  each 
other;  as, — 

parentes  llberique,  parents  and  children ; 
cum  homines  aestu  febrique  jactantur,  when  people  are 
tossed  about  with  heat  and  fever. 


224  Syntax. 

c)  atque  (ac)  usually  emphasizes  the  second  of  the  two  things 
connected,  —  and  also,  and  indeed,  and  in  fact.     After  words 
of  likeness  and  difference  atque  (ac)  has  the  force  of  as, 
than.     Thus :  — 

ego  idem  sentio  ac  tu,  I  think  the  same  as  you  ; 
baud  aliter  ac,  not  otherwise  than . 

d)  neque  (nee)  means  and  not,  neither,  nor. 

2.  a)    -que  is  an  enclitic,  and  is  appended  always  to  the  second  of 

two  words  connected.  Where  it  connects  phrases  or  clauses 
it  is  appended  to  the  first  word  of  the  second  clause ;  but 
when  the  first  word  of  the  second  clause  is  a  Preposition, 
-que  is  regularly  appended  to  the  next  following  word  ;  as,  — 
ob  eamque  rem,  and  on  account  of  that  thing. 

b)  atque  is  used  before  vowels  and  consonants  ;  ac  never  before 
vowels,  and  seldom  before  c,  g,  qu. 

c)  et  non  is  used  for  neque  when  the  emphasis  of  the  negative 
rests  upon  a  special  word  ;  as,  — 

vetus  et  non  ignobilis  orator,  an  old  and  not  ignoble  orator. 

d)  For  and  nowhere,  and  never,  and  none,  the  Latin  regularly 
said  nee  usquam,  nee  umquam,  nee  ullus,  etc. 

3.  Correlatives.     Copulative    Conjunctions   are    frequently  used 
correlatively ;  as,  — 

et  .   .   .  et,  both  .  .  .  and ; 

neque  (nee)  .  .  .  neque  (nee),  neither  .  .  .  nor; 
cum  .   .   .  turn,  while  .   .  .  at  the  same  time ; 
turn  .   .   .  turn,  not  only  .   .   .  but  also. 
Less  frequently :  — 

et  .   .   .  neque ;  neque  .   .   .  et. 

a.  Note  that  the  Latin,  with  its  tendency  to  emphasize  antithetical  relations, 
often  uses  correlatives,  especially  et  .  .  .  et,  et  .  .  .  neque,  where 
the  English  employs  but  a  single  connective. 

4.  In  enumerations  — 

a)    The  different  members  of  a  series  may  follow  one  another 
without  connectives  (Asyndeton  ;  see  §  346).     Thus  :  — 
ex  cupiditatibus  odia,  discidia,  discordiae,  seditiones, 
bella  nascuntur,/>YW/  covetoits  desires  spring  up  hatred, 
dissensions,  discord,  sedition,  wars. 


Coordinate  Conjunctions.  225 

b)  The  different  members  may  severally  be  connected  by  et 
( Polysyndeton).     Thus  :  — 

horae  cedunt  et  dies  et  menses  et  anni,  hours  and  days 
and  years  and  months  pass  away. 

c)  The  connective  may  be  omitted  between  the  former  members, 
while  the  last  two  are  connected  by  -que  (rarely  et)  ;  as,  — 
Caesar  in  Carnutes,  Andes  Turonesque  legiones  dedu- 

cit,  Caesar  leads  his  legions  into  the  territory  of  the 
Carnutes,  Andes,  and  Turones. 

342.  Disjunctive  Conjunctions  indicate  an  alternative. 

1.  a)   aut   must  be  used  when  the  alternatives  are  mutually  ex- 

clusive ;  as,  — 

cita  mors  venit  aut  victoria  laeta,  (either)  swift  death  or 
glad  victory  comes. 

b)    vel,   -ve    (enclitic)    imply  a  choice   between   the   alterna- 
tives ;   as,  — 

qui  aether  vel  caelum  nominatur,  which  is  called  aether 
or  heaven. 

2.  Correlatives.     Disjunctive  Conjunctions  are  often  used  correla- 

tively ;  as,  — 

aut    .   .   .  aut,    either  .  .  .or; 

vel    .  .  .  vel,     either  .  .  .or; 
sive  .   .   .  sive,  if or  if. 

343.  Adversative    Conjunctions.       These    denote    oppo- 
sition. 

i.    a)   sed,  but)  merely  denotes  opposition. 

b)  verum,  but,  is  stronger  than  sed,  but  is  less  frequently  used. 

c)  autem,  but  on  the  other  hand,  however,  marks  a  transition. 
It  is  always  post-positive. 

DEFINITION.     A  post-positive  word  is  one  that  cannot  begin  a  sen- 
tence, but  is  placed  after  one  or  more  words. 

d)    at,  but,  is  used  especially  in  disputation,  to  introduce  an 

opposing  argument. 
e)   atqui  means  but  yet. 
/)   tamen,  yet,  usually  stands  after  the  emphatic  word,  but  not 

always. 
g)    vero.  however,  indeed,  in  truth,  is  always  post-positive. 

Q 


226  Syntax. 

2.    Note  the  correlative  expressions  :  — 

non  solum  (non  modo)   .   .   .  sed  etiam,  not  only  .  .  .  but  also ; 
non   modo   non  .   .   .  sed  ne  .   .   .  quidem,  not  only  not,  but  not 

even;  as, — 
non  modo  tibi  non  irascor,  sed  ne  reprehendo  quidem  factum 

tuum,  /  not  only  am  not  angry  with  yoit,  but  I  do  not  even  blame 

your  action. 

a.   But  when  the  sentence  has  but  one  verb,  and  this  stands  with  the  second 
member,  non  modo  may  be  used  for  non  modo  non;  as,  — 
adsentatio  non  modo  amico  sed  ne  Hbero  quidem  dig-na 

est,  flattery  is  not  only  (not)  worthy  of  a  friend,  but  not  even  of  a 
free  man. 

344.  Illative  Conjunctions.     These  represent  the  state- 
ment which  they  introduce  as  following  from  or  as  in  con- 
formity with  what  has  preceded. 

1 .  d)   itaque  =  and  so,  accordingly. 

b)  ergo  =  therefore,  accordingly. 

c)  igitur  (regularly  post-positive J)  =  therefore,  accordingly. 

2.  Igitur  is  never  combined  with  et,  atque,  -que,  or  neque. 

345.  Causal  Conjunctions.     These  denote  cause,  or  give 
an  explanation.     They  are  nam,  namque,  enim  (post-positive), 
etenim,  for. 

346.  Asyndeton.      The   conjunction   is   sometimes   omitted   be- 
tween   coordinate    members,    particularly    in    lively    or    impassioned 
narration.     Thus :  — 

d)  A  Copulative  Conjunction  is  omitted ;  as,  — 

avaritia    infmita,    insatiabilis    est,   avarice  is  boundless 

(and)  insatiable; 
Cn.  Pompejo,  M.  Crasso  consulibus,  in  the  consulship  of 

Gnaeus  Pompey  (and)  Marcus  Crass  us. 
The  conjunction  is  regularly  omitted  between  the  names  of 
consuls. 

b)   An  Adversative  Conjunction  may  be  omitted  ;  as,  — 

rationes  defuerunt,  ubertas  orationis  non  defuit,  argu- 
ments were  lacking,  (but)  abundance  of  words  was  not. 

1  Except  in  Sallust  and  Silver  Latin. 


Adverbs.  —  Word-Order.  227 


ADVERBS. 

347.    i.    The  following  particles,  sometimes  classed   as 
Conjunctions,  are  more  properly  Adverbs  :  — 

etiam,  also,  even. 

quoque  (always  post-positive),  also. 

quidem  (always  post-positive)  lays  stress  upon  the  preceding  word. 

It  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  the  English  indeed,  in  fact,  but 

more  frequently  cannot  be  rendered,  except  by  vocal  emphasis. 
ne  .   .   .  quidem  means  not  even ;  the  emphatic  word  or  phrase  always 

stands  between ;  as,  ne  ille  quidem,  not  even  he. 
tamen  and  vero,  in  addition  to  their  use  as  Conjunctions,  are  often 

employed  as  Adverbs. 

2.  Negatives.  Two  Negatives  are  regularly  equivalent  to  an 
affirmative  as  in  English,  as  noil  nulli,  some;  but  when  non,  nemo, 
nihil,  numquam,  etc.,  are  accompanied  by  neque  .  .  .  neque,  non 
.  .  .  n5n,  non  modo,  or  ne  .  .  .  quidem,  the  latter  particles  simply 
take  up  the  negation  and  emphasize  it ;  as,  — 
habeo  hie  neminem  neque  amicum  neque  cognatum,  I  have  here 

no  one,  neither  friend  nor  relative. 
non  enim  praetereundum  est  ne  id  quidem,  for  not  even  that  must 

be  passed  by. 

a.  Haud  in  Cicero  and  Caesar  occurs  almost  exclusively  as  a  modifier 
of  Adjectives  and  Adverbs,  and  in  the  phrase  haud  scio  an.  Later 
writers  use  it  freely  with  verbs. 


CHAPTER    VII. —  Word-Order  and  Sentence- 
Structure. 

A.    WORD -ORDER. 

348.  In  the  normal  arrangement  of  the  Latin  sentence 
the  Subject  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  the 
Predicate  at  the  end  ;  as,  — 

Darius  classem   quingentarum  navium   comparavit,  Darius  got 
ready  a  fleet  of  five  hundred  ships. 


228  Syntax. 

349.    But  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  the  normal  arrange- 
ment is  often  abandoned,  and  the  emphatic  word  is  put 
at  the  beginning,  less,  frequently  at  the  end  of  the  sen- 
tence ;  as,  — 
magnus  in  hoc  bello  Themistocles  fuit,  GREAT  was  Themistocles  in 

this  war ; 
aliud  iter  habemus  nullum,  other  course  we  have  NONE. 


SPECIAL   PRINCIPLES. 

350.     i.    Nouns.     A  Genitive  or  other  oblique  case  regularly  fol- 
lows the  word  upon  which  it  depends.     Thus  :  — 

a)  Depending  upon  a  Noun  :  — 

tribuiius  plebis,  tribune  of  the  plebs ; 
filius  regis,  son  of  the  king; 
vir  magni  animi,  a  man  of  noble  spirit. 
Yet  always  senatus  coiisultum,  plebis  scitum. 

b)  Depending  upon  an  Adjective  :  — 

ignarus  rerum,  ignorant  of  affairs  ; 
digni  amicitia,  worthy  of  friendship ; 
plus  aequo,  more  than  (what  is)  fair. 

2.  Appositives.     An   Appositive   regularly   follows   its   Subject; 
as,— 

Fhilippus,  rex  Macedonum,  Philip,  king  of  the  Macedonians  ; 

adsentatio,  vitiorum  adjutrlx^tf/y^r/,  promoter  of  evils. 
Yet  flumen  Rheiius,  the  River  Rhine]  and  always  in  good   prose 
urbs  Roma,  the  city  Rome. 

3.  The  Vocative  usually  follows  one  or  more  words;  as, — 

Audi,  Caesar,  hear,  Caesar ! 

4.  Adjectives.     No  general  law  can  be  laid  down  for  the  posi- 
tion of  Adjectives.      On   the  whole   they  precede   the   noun   oftener 
than  they  follow  it. 

a.    Adjectives  of  quantity  (including  numerals)  regularly  pre- 
cede their  noun  ;  as,  — 

omnes  homines,  all  men  ; 

septingentae  naves,  seven  hundred  vessels. 


Word-Order.  229 

b.    Note  the  force  of  position  in  the  following :  — 
media  urbs,  the  middle  of  the  city  ; 
urbs  media,  the  middle  city  ; 
extremum  bellum,  the  end  of  the  war ; 
bellum  extremum,  the  last  war. 

Romanus  and  Latinus  regularly  follow;  as,— 

senatus   populusque  Romanus,  the  Roman  Senate  and 

People ; 

ludi  Romani,  the  Roman  games ; 
feriae  Latmae,  the  Latin  holidays. 

d.    When  a  Noun  is  modified  both  by  an  Adjective  and  by  a  Geni- 
tive, a  favorite  order  is:  Adjective,  Genitive,  Noun;  as,— 
summa  omnium  rerum  abundantia,  the  greatest  abun- 
dance of  all  things. 

Pronouns. 

a.  The  Demonstrative,  Relative,  and  Interrogative  Pronouns 
regularly  precede  the  Noun ;  as,  — 

hie  homo,  this  man  ; 
ille  homo,  that  mart ; 
erant  duo  itinera,  quibus  itineribus,  etc.,  there  were  two 

routes,  by  which,  etc. 
qui  homo  ?  what  sort  of  a  man  ? 

b.  But  ille  in  the  sense  of  *  that  well  known,"1  i  that  famous] 
usually  stands  after  its  Noun  ;  as,  — 

testula  ilia,  that  well-known  custom  of  ostracism  ; 
Medea  ilia,  that  famous  Medea. 

c.  Possessive   and    Indefinite    Pronouns    usually   follow   their 
Noun ;  as,  — 

pater  meus,  my  father ; 

homo  quidam,  a  certain  man ; 

mulier  aliqua,  some  woman. 

But  for  purposes  of  contrast  the  Possessive  often  precedes 

its  Noun  ;  as,  — 

meus  pater,  MY  father  (i.e.  as  opposed  to  yours,  his,  etc.}. 

d.  Where  two  or  more  Pronouns  occur  in  the  same  sentence, 
the  Latin  is  fond  of  putting  them  in  close  proximity ;  as,  — 
nisi  forte  ego  vobis  cessare  videor,  iinless  perchance  I 

seem  to  you  to  be  doing  nothing. 


230  Syntax. 

6.  Adverbs  and  Adverbial  phrases  regularly  precede  the  word  they 
modify ;  as,  — 

valde  diligens,  extremely  diligent ; 

saepe  dixi,  I  have  often  said; 

te  jam  diu  hortamur,  we  have  long  been  urging  you  ; 

paulo  post,  a  little  after. 

7.  Prepositions  regularly  precede  the  words  they  govern. 

a.  But  limiting  words  often  intervene  between  the  Preposition 
and  its  case  ;  as,  — 

de  communi  hominum  memoria,  concerning  the  common 

memory  of  men  ; 
ad  beate  vivendum,y^r  living  happily . 

b.  When  a  noun  is  modified  by  an  Adjective,  the  Adjective  is 
often  placed  before  the  preposition  ;  as,  — 

magiid  in  dolore,  in  great  grief '; 
summa  cum  laude,  with  the  highest  credit ; 
qua  de  causa,  for  which  cause ; 
naiic  ob  rem,  on  account  of  this  thing. 

c.  For  Anastrophe,  by  which  a  Preposition  is  put  after  its  case,  see  §  144,  3, 

8.  Conjunctions.     Autem,  enim,  and  igitur  regularly  stand  in 
the  second  place  in  the  sentence,  but  when  combined  with  est   or 
sunt  they  often  stand  third ;   as,  — 

ita  est  enim,  for  so  it  is. 

9.  Words  or  Phrases  referring  to  the  preceding  sentence  or  to  some 
part  of  it,  regularly  stand  first ;  as,  — 

id  ut  audlvit,  Corcyram  demigravit,  when  he  heard  that  (referring 
to  the  contents  of  the  preceding  sentence),  he  moved  to  Corcyra  ; 

eo  cum  Caesar  venisset,  timentes  coiifirmat,  when  Caesar  had 
come  thither  (i.e.  to  the  place  just  mentioned),  he  encouraged  the 
timid. 

10.  The  Latin  has  a  fondness  for  putting  side  by  side  words  which 
are  etymologically  related  ;  as,  — 

ut  ad  senem  senex  de  senectute,  sic  hoc  librd  ad  amicum 
amicissimus  de  amicitia  scrips!,  as  T,  an  old  man,  wrote  to 
an  old  man,  on  old  age,  so  in  this  book,  as  a  fond  friend,  1  have 
written  to  a  friend  concerning  friendship. 


Word-Order.  23 1 

1 1 .  Special    rhetorical    devices    for   indicating    emphasis    are    the 
following :  — 

a)    Hype'rbaton,  which  consists  in  the  separation  of  words  that 
regularly  stand  together  ;  as,  — 
Septimus    mini    Originum    liber    est   in    maiiibus,   the 

seventh  book  of  my  '  Origines '  is  under  way ; 
recepto    Caesar    6ric5   proficiscitur,  having  recovered 
Oricus,  Caesar  set  out. 

b)  Anaphora,  which  consists  in  the  repetition  of  the  same  word 
or  the  same  word-order  in  successive  phrases ;  as,  — 

sed  pleni  o  nines  sunt  libri,  pleiiae  sapientium  voces, 
plena  exemplorum  vetustas,  but  all  books  are  full  of 
it,  the  voices  of  sages  are  fttll  of  it,  antiquity  is  full  of 
examples  of  it. 

c)  Chiasmus,1  which  consists  in  changing  the  relative   order 
of  words  in  two  antithetical  phrases  ;  as,  — 

multos  defend!,  laesi  neminem,  many  have  I  defended,  I 

have  injured  no  one ; 
horribilem  ilium   diem   aliis,   nobis   faustum,  that  day 

dreadful  to  others,  for  us  fortunate. 

d)    S^nchysis,  or  the  interlocked  arrangement.     This  is  mostly 
confined  to  poetry,  yet  occurs  in  rhetorical  prose,  especially 
that  of  the  Imperial  Period  ;  as,  — 
simulatam  Pompejanarum  gratiam  partium,  pretended 

interest  in  the  Pompeian  party. 

12.  Metrical  Close.     At  the  end  of  a  sentence  certain  cadences 
were  avoided  ;  others  were  much  employed.     Thus  :  — 

a)  Cadences  avoided. 

w  w ^  ;       as,  esse  videtur  (close  of  hexameter). 

w  w  w  ;  as,  esse  potest  (close  of  pentameter) . 

b)  Cadences  frequently  employed. 
w ;  as,  auxerant. 

\u \u  ;  as,  comprobavit. 

www \j  ;  as,  esse  videatur. 

w w ;        as,  rogatu  tuo. 

i  So  named  from  a  fancied  analogy  to  the  strokes  of  the  Greek  letter  X  (chi) . 
Thus:  — 

multos     laesi 

defend!     neminem 


232  Syntax. 


B.    SENTENCE-STRUCTURE. 

351.    i.    Unity  of   Subject. —  In   complex   sentences   the   Latin 
regularly  holds  to  unity  of  Subject  in  the  different  members  ;  as,  — 
Caesar    primum    suo,    delude    omnium    ex   coiispectu   remotis 
equis,   ut   aequato    periculo    spem   fugae  tolleret,  cohor- 
tatus  suos  proelium  commisit,  Caesar  having  first  removed 
his  own  horse  from  sight,  then  the  horses  of  all,  in  order,  by 
making  the  danger  equal,  to  take  away  hope  of  flight,  encouraged 
his  men  and  joined  battle. 

2.  A  word  serving  as  the  common  Subject  or  Object  of  the  main 
clause  and  a  subordinate  one,  stands  before  both  ;  as,  — 

Aedui   cum   se    defendere   non   posseiit,  legates    ad   Caesarem 

mittunt,  since  the  Aedui  could  not  defend  themselves,  they  sent 

envoys  to  Caesar', 
ille  etsl  flagrabat  bellandi  cupiditate,  tamen  paci  serviendum 

putavit,  although  he  was  burning  with  a  desire  to  fight,  yet  he 

thought  he  ought  to  aim  at  peace. 

a.    The  same  is  true  also 

1)  When   the    Subject    of   the    main   clause    is   Object 
(Direct  or  Indirect)  of  a  subordinate  clause  ;  as,  — 
Caesar,  cum  hoc  ei  nuntiatum  esset,  maturat  ab  urbe 

proficisci,  when  this  had  been  reported  to  Caesar  he 
hastened  to  set  out  from  the  city. 

2)  When  the  Subject  of  a  subordinate  clause  is  at  the 
same   time   the   Object    (Direct  or   Indirect)    of  the    main 
clause ;  as,  — 

L.  Manlio,  cum  dictator  fuisset,  M.  Fomponius  tri- 
bunus  plebis  diem  dixit,  M.  Pomponius,  tribune  of 
the  people,  instituted  proceedings  against  Lucius  Man- 
lius  though  he  had  been  dictator. 

3.  Of  subordinate  clauses,  temporal,  conditional,  and  adversative 
clauses  more  commonly  precede  the  main  clause ;   indirect  questions 
and  clauses  of  purpose  or  result  more  commonly  follow ;  as,  — 
postquam  haec  dixit,  profectus  est,  after  he  said  this ,  he  set  out ; 

si  quis  ita  agat,  imprudens  sit,  if  any  one  should  act  so,  he  would 

be  devoid  of  foresight ; 
accidit  ut  una  iiocte   omiies   Hermae   deicerentur,  //  happened 

that  in  a  single  night  all  the  Hermae  were  thrown  down. 


Sentence-Structure. — Hints  on  Style.  233 

4.  Sometimes  in  Latin  the  main  verb  is  placed  within  the  sub- 
ordinate clause ;  as,  — 

si  quid  eat  in  me  ingeni,  quod  sentid  quam  sit  exiguum,  if  there 
is  any  talent  in  me,  and  I  know  how  little  it  is. 

5.  The   Latin   Period.     The   term   Period,   when   strictly  used, 
designates  a  compound  sentence  in  which  the  subordinate  clauses  are 
inserted  within  the  main  clause  ;  as,  — 

Caesar  etsi  intellegebat  qua  de  causa  ea  dicerentur,  tamen,  ne 
aestatem  in  Treveris  consumere  cogeretur,  Indutiomarum 
ad  se  venire  jussit,  though   Caesar   perceived  why  this  was 
said,  yet,  lest  he  should  be  forced  to  spend  the  summer  among 
the  Treveri,  he  ordered  Indutiomarus  to  come  to  him. 
In  the  Periodic  structure  the  thought  is  suspended  until  the  end  of 
the  sentence  is  reached.     Many  Roman  writers  were  extremely  fond  of 
this   sentence-structure,  and   it  was   well  adapted  to  the  inflectional 
character  of  their  language  ;  in  English  we  generally  avoid  it. 

6.  When  there  are  several  subordinate  clauses  in  one  Period,  the 
Latin  so  arranges  them  as  to  avoid  a  succession  of  verbs.     Thus  :  — 
At  hostes  cum  misissent,  qui,  quae  in  castris  gererentur,  cog- 

noscerent,  ubi  se  deceptos  intellexerunt,  omnibus  copiis 
subsecuti  ad  flumeii  contendunt,  but  the  enemy  when  they 
had  sent  men  to  learn  what  was  going  on  in  camp,  after  dis- 
covering that  they  had  been  outwitted,  followed  with  all  their 
forces  and  hurried  to  the  river. 


CHAPTER  VIII.  —  Hints  on  Latin    Style. 

352.  In   this   chapter   brief    consideration    is   given    to 
a  few  features  of   Latin   diction  which  belong  rather  to 
style  than  to  formal  grammar. 

NOUNS. 

353.  i.    Where  a  distinct  reference  to  several  persons  or  things  is 
involved,  the  Latin  is  frequently  much  more  exact  in  the  use  of  the 
Plural  than  is  the  English  ;  as,  — 


234  Syntax. 

domos  eunt,  they  go  home  (i.e.  to  their  homes) ; 
German!  corpora  curant,  the  Germans  care  for  the  body ; 
animds  militum  recreat,  he  renews  the  courage  of  the  soldiers  ; 
dies  noctesque  timere,  to  be  in  a  state  of  fear  day  and  night. 

2.  In  case  of  Neuter  Pronouns  and  Adjectives  used  substantively, 
the  Latin  often  employs  the  Plural  where  the  English  uses  the  Singu- 
lar; as, — 

omnia  sunt  perdita,  everything  is  lost ; 

quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  this  is  so ; 

haec  omnibus  pervulgata  sunt,  this  is  very  well  known  to  all. 

3.  The  Latin  is  usually  more  concrete  than  the  English,  and  espe- 
cially less  bold  in  the  personification  of  abstract  qualities.     Thus  :  — 

a  puero,  a  pueris,  from  boyhood; 

Sulla  dictatore,  in  Sulla's  dictatorship ; 

me  duce,  under  my  leadership ; 

Roman!  cum  Carthaginiensibus  pacem  fecerunt  =  Rome  made 
peace  with  Carthage ; 

liber  doctrinae  plenus  =  a  learned  book ; 

prudentia  Themistoclis  Graecia  servata  est  =  Themistocles'1  s  fore- 
sight saved  Greece. 

4.  The  Nouns  of  Agency  in  -tor  and  -sor  (see  §  147,  i)  denote  a 
permanent  or  characteristic  activity ;  as,  — 

accusatores  (professional}  accusers; 

oratores,  pleaders ; 

cantores,  singers ; 

Arminius,  Germaniae  liberator,  Arminius,  liberator  of  Germany. 

a.    To  denote  single  instances  of  an  action,  other  expressions  are 
commonly  employed ;  as, — 

Numa,  qui  Romulo  successit,  Numa,  successor  of  Romulus  ; 
qui  mea  legunt,  my  readers  ; 
qui  me  audiunt,  my  auditors. 

5.  The  Latin  avoids  the  use  of  prepositional  phrases  as  modifiers  of 
a  Noun.     In  English  we  say:  'The  war  against  Carthage"* ;  <•  a  journey 
through  Gaul ' ;  <  cities  on  the  sea ' ;  *  the  book  in  my  hands ' ;  '  the  Jight 
at  Salamis"1 ;  etc.     The  Latin  in  such  cases  usually  employs  another 
mode  of  expression.     Thus  :  — 

a)   A  Genitive ;  as,  — 

dolor  injuriarum,  resentment  at  injuries. 


Hints  on  Style,  235 

b)  An  Adjective  ;  as,  — 

urbes  maritimae,  cities  on  the  sea  ; 
pugna  Salammia,  the  fight  at  Salamis. 

c)  A  Participle  ;  as,  — 

pugna  ad  Cannas  facta,  the  battle  at  Cannae. 

d)  A  Relative  clause  ;  as,  — 

liber  qui  in  me  is  manibus  est,  the  book  in  my  hands. 

NOTE.  —  Yet  within  certain  limits  the  Latin  does  employ  Prepo- 
sitional phrases  as  Noun  modifiers.  This  is  particularly  frequent 
when  the  governing  noun  is  derived  from  a  verb.  The  following  are 
typical  examples :  — 

transitus  in  Britanniam,  the  passage  to  Britain ; 

excessus  e  vita,  departure  from  life ; 

odium  erga  Romanes,  hatred  of  the  Romans ; 

liber  de  senectute,  the  book  on  old  age ; 

amor  in  patriam,  love  for  one^s  country. 


ADJECTIVES. 

354.     I.     Special    Latin    Equivalents    for    English    Adjec- 
tives are  — 

a )  A  Genitive  ;  as,  — 

virtutes  aiiimi  =  moral  virtues ; 
dolores  corporis  =  bodily  ills. 

b)  An  Abstract  Noun  ;  as,  — 

no  vitas  rei  =  the  strange  circumstance ; 
asperitas  viarum  =  rough  roads. 

c)  Hendiadys  (see  §  374,  4);  as,— 
ratio  et  ordo  =  systematic  order ; 
ardor  et  impetus  =  eager  onset. 

d)  Sometimes  an  Adverb  ;  as,  — 

o nines  circa  populi,  all  the  surrounding  tribes  ; 
suos  semper  hostes,  their  perpetual  foes . 

2.    Often  a  Latin  Noun  is  equivalent  to  an  English  Noun  modified 
by  an  Adjective  ;  as,  — 

doctrina,  theoretical  knowledge ;  prudentia,  practical  knowledge ; 

oppidum,  walled  town  ;  libellus,  little  book 


236  Syntax. 

3.  Adjectives  are  not  used  in  immediate  agreement  with  proper 
names ;    but  an  Adjective  may  limit  vir,  homo,  ille,  or  some  other 
word  used  as  an  Appositive  of  a  proper  name  ;  as,  — 

Socrates,  homo  sapiens  =  the  wise  Socrates ; 
Scipio,  vir  f  ortissimus  =  the  doughty  Scipio ; 
Syracusae,  urbs  praeclarissima  =  famous  Syracuse. 

4.  An  Adjective  may  be  equivalent  to  a  Possessive  Genitive ;  as,  — 

pastor  regius,  the  shepherd  of  the  king; 
tumultus  servilis,  the  uprising  of  the  slaves. 

PRONOUNS. 

355.  In  Compound  Sentences  the  Relative  Pronoun  has  a  fondness 
for  connecting  itself  with  the  subordinate  clause  rather  than  the  main 
one ;  as,  — 

a  quo  cum  quaereretur,  quid  maxime  expediret,  respondit,  when 
it  was  asked  of  him  what  was  best,  he  replied.  (Less  commonly, 
qui,  cum  ab  eo  quaereretur,  respondit.) 

2.    Uterque,  ambo.     Uterque  means  each  of  two]  ambo  means 
both;  as, — 

uterque  f  rater  abiit,  each  of  the  two  brothers  departed  (i.e.  sepa- 
rately) ; 
ambo  fratres  abierunt,  i.e.  the  two  brothers  departed  together. 

a.    The  Plural  of  uterque  occurs  — 

1)  With  Nouns  used  only  in  the  Plural  (see  §  56) ;  as, — 

in  utrisque  castris,  in  each  camp. 

2)  Where  there  is  a  distinct  reference  to  two  groups  of 
persons  or  things  ;  as,  — 

utrique  duces  clari  fuerunt,  the  generals  on  each  side  (sev- 
eral in  number)  were  famous. 

VERBS. 

356.  i.    In  case  of  Defective  and  Deponent  Verbs  a  Passive  is 
supplied :  — 

a)    By  the  corresponding  verbal  Nouns  in  combination  with 
esse,  etc. ;  as,  — 

in  odio  sumus,  we  are  hated ; 
in  invidia  sum,  I  am  envied ; 


Hints  on  Style.  .       237 

admiration!  est,  he  is  admired', 

oblivione  obruitur,  he  is  forgotten  (lit.  is  overwhelmed  by 

oblivion) ; 
in  usu  esse,  to  be  used. 

b)    By  the  Passive  of  Verbs  of  related  meaning.     Thus  :  — 
agitari  as  Passive  of  persequi ; 
temptari  as  Passive  of  adoriri. 

2.  The  lack  of  the  Perfect  Active  Participle  in  Latin  is  supplied  — 

a)  Sometimes  by  the  Perfect  Passive  Participle  of  the  Depo- 
nent ;  as,  — 

adhortatus,  having  exhorted '; 
veritus,  having  feared. 

b)  By  the  Ablative  Absolute ;  as,  — 

hostium  agris  vastatis  Caesar  exercitum  reduxit,  hav- 
ing ravaged  the  country  of  the  enemy,  Caesar  led  back 
his  army. 

c)  By  subordinate  clauses ;  as,  — 

eo  cum  advenisset,  castra  posuit,  having  arrived  there, 

he  pitched  a  camp  ; 
hostes  qui  in  urbem  irruperant,  the  enemy  having  burst 

into  the  city. 

3.  The  Latin  agrees  with  English  in  the  stylistic  employment  of 
the  Second  Person  Singular  in  an  indefinite  sense  (=  'one'').      Cf. 
the  English  <  You  can  drive  a  horse  to  water,  but  you  can't  make  him 
drink?     In  Latin,  however,  this  use  is  confined  to  certain  varieties  of 
the  Subjunctive,  especially  the  Potential  (§  280),  Jussive  (§  277),  De- 
liberative (§  275),  and  the  Subjunctive  in  conditional  sentences  of  the 
sort  included  under  §  302,  2,  and  303.     Examples  :  — 

videres,  you  could  see ; 

utare  viribus   use  your  strength  ; 

quid  hoc  homine  facias,  what  are  you  to  do  with  this  man  f 

meiis  quoque  et  animus,  nisi  tamquam  lumini  oleum  instilles 
exstinguuntur  senectute,  the  intellect  and  mind  too  are  ex- 
tinguished by  old  age,  unless,  so  to  speak,  you  keep  pouring  oil 
into  the  lamp ; 

tanto  amore  possessiones  suas  amplexi  tenebant,  ut  ab  eis 
membra  divelli  citius  posse  diceres,  they  clung  to  their 
possessions  with  such  an  affectionate  embrace,  that  you  would 
have  said  their  limbs  could  sooner  be  torn  from  their  bodies. 


238        ,  Syntax. 


PECULIARITIES    IN    THE    USE    OF    THE    ACCUSATIVE. 

357.  i.  To  denote  i so  many  years,  etc.,  afterwards  or  before^  the 
Latin  employs  not  merely  the  Ablative  of  Degree  of  Difference  with 
post  and  ante  (see  §  223),  but  has  other  forms  of  expression.  Thus :  — 

post  qumque  annos,  five  years  afterward; 

paucds  ante  dies,  a  few  days  before; 

ante  quadriennium,  four  years  before ; 

post  diem  quartum  quam  ab  urbe  discessimus,y#2/r  days  after  ive 

left  the  city ; 
ante  tertium  annum  quam  decesserat,  three  years  before  he  had 

died. 

2.  The  Latin  seldom  combines  both  Subject  and  Object  with  the 
same  Infinitive  ;  as,  —  . 

Romanos  Hannibalem  vicisse  constat. 

Such  a  sentence  would  be  ambiguous,  and  might  mean  either  that  the 
Romans  had  conquered  Hannibal,  or  that  Hannibal  had  conquered  the 
Romans.  Perspicuity  was  gained  by  the  use  of  the  Passive  Infini- 
tive ;  as,  — 

Romanos  ab  Hannibale  victos  esse  constat,  it  is  well  established 
that  the  Romans  were  defeated  by  Hannibal. 


PECULIARITIES    IN   CONNECTION   WITH   THE   USE    OF 
THE   DATIVE. 

358.  i.  The  English  for  does  not  always  correspond  to  a  Dative 
notion  in  Latin,  but  is  often  the  equivalent  of  pro  with  the  Ablative, 
viz.  in  the  senses  — 

a)  In  defense  of;  as,  — 

pro  patria  mori,  to  die  for  one^s  country. 

b)  Instead  of  ,  in  behalf  of ;  as, — 

unus  pr5  omnibus  dixit,  one  spoke  for  all. 
haec  pro  lege  dicta  sunt,  these  things  were  said  in  behalf 
of  the  law. 

c)  In  proportion  to ;  as,  — 

pro  multitudine  hominum,  in  proportion  to  the  popula- 
tion. 


Hints  on  Style.  239 

2.  Similarly,  English  to  when  it  indicates  motion  is  rendered  in 
Latin  by  ad. 

a.  Note,  however,  that  the  Latin  may  say  either  scribere  ad 
aliquem,  or  scribere  alicui,  according  as  the  idea  of  motion 
is  or  is  not  predominant.  So  in  several  similar  expressions. 

3.  In  the  poets,  verbs  of  mingling  with,  contending  with,  sometimes 
take  the  Dative.     This  construction  is  a  Grecism.     Thus  :  — 

se  miscet  viris,  he  mingles  with  the  men ; 
contendis  Homero,  you  contend  with  Homer. 


PECULIARITIES    IN   THE   USE    OP   THE    GENITIVE. 

359.  i.  The  Possessive  Genitive  gives  emphasis  to  the  possessor, 
the  Dative  of  Possessor  emphasizes  the  fact  of  possession  ;  as,  — 

hortus  patris  est,  the  garden  is  my  father's ; 
mini  hortus  est,  /possess  a  garden. 

2.  The  Latin  can  say  either  stulti  or  stultum  est  dicere,  it  is 
foolish  to  say;  but  Adjectives  of  one  ending  permit  only  the  Gen- 
itive ;  as,  — 

sapientis  est  haec  secum  reputare,  it  is  the  part  of  a  wise  man  to 
consider  this. 


PART   VI. 


PROSODY. 


360.  Prosody  treats  of  metres  and  versification. 

361.  Latin  Verse.    Latin  Poetry  was  essentially  different 
in  character  from  English.     In  our  own  language  poetry  is 
based  upon  accent,  and  poetical  form  consists  essentially  in 
a  certain  succession  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables. 
Latin    poetry,   on    the    other  hand,  was  based   not   upon 
accent,  but  upon  quantity,  so  that  with  the  Romans  poeti- 
cal form  consisted  in  a  certain  succession  of  long  and  short 
syllables,  i.e.  of  long  and  short  intervals  of  time. 

This  fundamental  difference  in  the  character  of  English 
and  Latin  poetry  is  a  natural  result  of  the  difference  in 
character  of  the  two  languages.  English  is  a  strongly 
accented  language  in  which  quantity  is  relatively  subordi- 
nate. Latin,  on  the  other  hand,  was  a  quantitative  lan- 
guage, in  which  accent  was  relatively  subordinate. 


QUANTITY    OF    VOWELS    AND    SYLLABLES. 

GENERAL   PRINCIPLES. 

362.  The  general  principles  for  the  quantity  of  vowels 
and  syllables  have  been  given  above  in  §  5.  The  following 
peculiarities  are  to  be  noted  here  :  —  * 

I.  A  vowel  is  usually  short  when  followed  by  another  vowel 
(§  5.  A.  2),  but  the  following  exceptions  occur:  — 

240 


Quantity  of  Vowels  and  Syllables.  241 

a)  In  the  Genitive  termination  -ms  (except  alterius);  as,  illius, 
totius.     Yet  the  i  may  be  short  in  poetry  ;  as,  illius,  totius. 

b)  In  the  Genitive  and  Dative  Singular  of  the  Fifth  Declension  ; 
as,  diei,  aciei.     But  fide%  rei,  spei  (§  52,  i). 

c)  In  flo,  excepting  fit  and  forms  where  i  is  followed  by  er. 
Thus  :  fiebam,  fiat,  fiunt ;  but  fieri,  fierem. 

d)  In  a  few  other  words,  especially  words  derived  from  the 
Greek ;  as,  dius,  Aeneas,  Dareus,  heroes,  etc. 

2.  A  diphthong  is  usually  long  (§  5.  B.  2),  but  the  preposition 
prae  in  composition  is  often  shortened  before  a  vowel ;  as,  pra^acutus. 

3.  A  syllable  containing  a  short  vowel  followed  by  two  consonants 
(§  5.  B.  2)  is  long,  even  when  one  of  the  consonants  is  in  the  follow- 
ing word;    as,  terret  populum.      Occasionally  the   syllable  is  long 
when   both  consonants  are   in  the  following  word ;   as,  pro  segete 
s  pic  as. 

4.  A  vowel  before  j  is  regularly  long,  but  is  short  in  compounds  of 
jugurn  ;  as,  bijugis,  quadrijugis. 

5.  Compounds  of  jacio,  though  written  inicit,  adicit,  etc.,  have 
the  first  syllable  long,  as  though  written  inj-,  adj-.     The  actual  pro- 
nunciation of  such  words  is  not  clear.     Reicio  has  e. 


Quantity  of  Final  Syllables. 

A.    Final  Syllables  ending  in  a   Vowel. 

363.     i.    Final   a   is   mostly  short,  but   is   long  in  the  following 
situations :  — 

a)  In  the  Ablative  Singular  of  the  First  Declension  ;  as,  porta. 

b)  In  the  Imperative  ;  as,  lauda. 

c)  In  indeclinable  words  (except  itS,  quiS)  ;  as,  triginta,  con- 
tra, postea,  interea,  etc. 

2.    Final  e  is  usually  short,  but  is  long  — 

a)  In  the  Ablative  Singular  of  the  Fifth  Declension ;  as, 
die,  re ;  hence  hodie,  quare.  Here  belongs  also  fame 

(§59.2.*). 

b}  In  the  Imperative  of  the  Second  Conjugation ;  as,  mone, 
habe,  etc. ;  yet  occasionally  cavS,  valS. 

c)  In  Adverbs  derived  from  Adjectives  of  the  Second  Declen- 
sion, along  with  fere  and  ferme.  Bene,  male,  temere, 
saepe  have  e. 

d)  In  e,  de,  me,  te,  se,  ne  (not*  lest},  ne  (verily). 


242  Prosody. 

3.  Final  i  is  usually  long,  but  is  short  in  nisi  and  quasi.     Mihi, 
tibi,  sibi,  ibi,  ubi,  have  regularly  I,  but  sometimes  I;   yet  always 
ibidem,  ibique,  ubique. 

4.  Final  o  is  regularly  long,  but  is  short  — 

a)  In  eg5,  du6,  mod6  (only),  cit6. 

b)  Rarely  in  the  First  Person  Singular  of  the  Verb,  and  in 
Nominatives  of  the  Third  Declension;  as,  am6,  Ie6. 

c)  In  a  few  compounds  beginning  with  the  Preposition  pro  ; 
as,  prfifundere,  prdficisci,  prfcfugere. 

5 .  Final  u  is  always  long. 

B.    Final  Syllables  ending  in  a  Consonant. 

364.  i.  Final  syllables  ending  in  any  other  consonant  than  s  are 
short.  The  following  words,  however,  have  a  long  vowel :  sal,  sol, 
Lar,  par,  ver,  fur,  die,  due,  lac,  en,  non,  quin,  sin,  sic,  cur,  hie  * 
(this) .  Also  adverbs  in  c  ;  as,  hie,  hue,  istic,  illuc,  etc. 

2.  Final  syllables  in  -as  are  long;  as,  terras,  amas. 

3.  Final  syllables  in  -es  are  regularly  long,  but  are  short  — 

a)  In  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  of  dental  stems 
(§  33)  °f  tne  Third  Declension  which  have  a  short  penult  in 
the  Genitive;  as,  seges  (segetis),  obses  (obsidis),  miles, 
dive's.     But  a  few  have  -es  ;  viz.  pes,  aries,  abies,  paries. 

b)  In  Ss  (thou  art),  penes. 

4.  Final  -os  is  usually  long,  but  short  in  8s  (ossis),  comp6s, 
imp6s. 

5 .  Final  -is  is  usually  short,  but  is  long  — 

a)  In  Plurals;  as,  portis,  hortis,  nobis,  vobis,  nubis  (Ace.). 

b)  In  the  Nominative  Singular  of  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declen- 
sion with  long  vowel  in  the  Penult  of  the  Genitive ;   as, 
Samnis  (-itis). 

c)  In  the  Second  Person  Singular  Present  Indicative  Active  of 
the  Fourth  Conjugation;  as,  audis. 

d)    In  vis,  force ;  is,  thou  goest ;  fis  ;   sis  ;  veils  ;  noils  ;  vis, 
thou  wilt ;  (mavis,  quamvis,  quivis,  etc.) . 

6.  Final  -us  is  usually  short,  but  is  long  — 

a)    In  the  Genitive  Singular  and  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative, 
and  Vocative  Plural  of  the  Fourth  Declension  ;  as,  fructus. 

1  Rarely  We. 


Verse- Structure.  243 

fr)  In  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  of  those  nouns  of 
the  Third  Declension  in  which  the  u  belongs  to  the  stem ; 
as,  palus  (-udis),  servitus  (-utis),  tellus  (-uris). 

365.  Greek  Nouns  retain  in  Latin  their  original  quantity;  as, 
Aenea,  epitome,  Delos,  Pallas,  Simols,  Salamis,  Didus,  Paridi, 
aer,  aether,  crater,  heroas.  Yet  Greek  nouns  in  -cop  regularly 
shorten  the  vowel ;  as,  rhet6r,  Hectdr. 


VERSE-STRUCTURE. 
GENERAL   PRINCIPLES. 

366.  i.  The  metrical  unit  in  versification  is  a  short  syllable,  tech- 
nically called  a  mora  (w).  A  long  syllable  ( )  is  regarded  as  equiva- 
lent to  two  morae. 

2.  A  Foot  is  a  group  of  syllables.     The  following  are  the  most 
important  kinds  of  feet :  — 

FEET  OF  THREE  MORAE.  FEET  OF  FOUR  MORAE. 

w     Trochee.  w  w     Dactyl. 

w Iambus.  w  w Anapaest. 

3.  A  Verse  is  a  succession  of  feet. 

4.  The  different  kinds  of  verses  are  named  Trochaic,  Iambic,  Dac- 
tylic, Anapaestic,  according  to  the  foot  which  forms  the  basis  of  their 
structure. 

5.  Ictus.     In  every  foot  the  long  syllable  naturally  receives  the 
greater  prominence.     This  prominence  is  called  ictus.1     It  is  denoted 
thus:  _/_  w  w  ;  ^-\j* 

6.  Thesis  and  Arsis.     The  syllable  which  receives  the  ictus  is 
called  the  thesis ;  the  rest  of  the  foot  is  called  the  arsis. 

7.  Elision.     Final  syllables  ending  in  a  vowel,  a  diphthong,  or  -m 
are  regularly  elided  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  h.     In 
reading,  we  ordinarily  omit  the  elided  syllable  entirely.     Probably  the 
ancients  slurred  the  words  together  in  some  way.     This  may  be  indi- 
cated as  follows  :  corpore  in  uno  ;  multum  ille^et ;  monstrunThor- 
rendum ;  causae  irarum. 

a.     Omission  of  elision  is  called  hiatus.     It  occurs  especially  before  and 
after  monosyllabic  Interjections ;  as,  O  et  praesidium. 

1  Ictus  was  not  accent,  —  neither  stress  accent  nor  musical  accent,  —  but  was 
simply  the  quantitative  prominence  inherent  in  a  long  syllable. 


244  Prosody. 

8.  The  ending  of  a  word  within  a  foot  is  called  a  caesura  (cutting). 
Every  verse  usually  has  one  prominent  caesura.     The  ending  of  a  word 
and  foot  together  within  the  verse  is  called  a  diaeresis. 

9.  Verses  are  distinguished  as  Catalectic  or  Acatalectic.     A  Cata- 
lectic  verse  is  one  in  which  the  last  foot  is  not  complete,  but  lacks  one 
or  more  syllables ;  an  Acatalectic  verse  has  its  last  foot  complete. 

10.  At  the  end  of  a  verse  a  slight  pause  occurred.     Hence  the  final 
syllable  may  be  either  long  or  short  (syllaba  anceps),  and  may  ter- 
minate in  a  vowel  or  m,  even  though   the   next  verse   begins  with 
a  vowel. 

1 1 .  Iambic,  Trochaic,  and  Anapaestic  verses  are  further  designated 
as  dimeter,  trimeter,  tetrameter,  according  to  the  number  of  dipodies 
(pairs  of  feet)  which  they  contain.     Dactylic  verses  are  measured  by 
single  feet,  and  are  designated  as  tetrameter,  pentameter,  hexameter, 
accordingly. 

SPECIAL   PECULIARITIES. 

367.     i.    Synizesis  (Synaeresis) .     Two  successive  vowels  in  the 
interior  of  a  word  are  often  united  into  a  long  syllable  ;  as,  — 
aureis,  deinde,  anteire,  deesse. 

2.  Diastole.     A  syllable  usually  short  is  sometimes  long;  as, — 

videt,  audit. 

3.  Systole.     A  syllable  usually  long  is  sometimes  short;  as, — 

stete'runt. 

a.  Diastole  and  Systole  are  not  mere  arbitrary  processes.  They 
usually  represent  an  earlier  pronunciation  which  had  passed 
out  of  vogue  in  the  ordinary  speech. 

4.  After  a  consonant,  i  and  u  sometimes  become  j  and  v.     The 
preceding  syllable  then  becomes  long;  as, — 

abjete  for  abiete  ;  genva  for  genua. 

5.  Sometimes  v  becomes  u  ;  as,  — 

silua  for  silva  ;  dissoluo  for  dissolve. 

6.  Sometimes   a  verse   has   an   extra   syllable.      Such   a  verse   is 
called   an   Hypermeter.      The   extra  syllable   ends   in    a   vowel    or 
-m,  and  is  united  with  the  initial  vowel  or  h  of  the  next  verse  by 
Synapheia.     Thus :  — 

ignari  hominumque  locorumque^ 

erramus. 


Verse-  Structu  re.  245 

7.  Tmesis  (cutting).     Compound  words  are  occasionally  separated 
into  their  elements  ;  as,  — 

quo  me  cunque  rapit  tempestas,  for  quocunque,  etc. 

8.  Syncope.     A  short  vowel  is  sometimes  dropped  between  two 

consonants ;  as,  — 

repostus  for  repositus. 


THE   DACTYLIC   HEXAMETER. 

368.  i.  The  Dactylic  Hexameter,  or  Heroic  Verse, 
consists  theoretically  of  six  dactyls.  But  in  all  the  feet 
except  the  fifth  a  spondee  (  __  )  may  take  the  place  of 
the  dactyl.  The  sixth  foot  may  be  either  a  spondee  or  a 
trochee,  since  the  final  syllable  of  a  verse  may  be  either 
long  or  short  (syllaba  anceps).  The  following  represents 
the  scheme  of  the  verse  :  — 


2.  Sometimes  we  find  a  spondee  in  the  fifth  foot.     Such  verses  are 
called  Spondaic.     A  dactyl  usually  stands  in  the  fourth  place,  and  the 
fifth  and  sixth  feet  are  generally  made  up  of  a  quadrisyllable  ;  as,  — 

armajbumquelaurdl  circunfspicit  Orioiia 

car  a  deum  suboles,  magnum  Jo  vis  in  ere  men  turn. 

3.  Caesura. 

a)  The  favorite  position  of  the  caesura  in  the  Dactylic  Hexam- 
eter is  after  the  thesis  of  the  third  foot  ;  as,  — 

arma  virumque  cano  ||  Trojae  qui  primus  ab  oris. 

b)  Less  frequently  the  caesura  occurs  after  the  thesis  of  the 
fourth  foot,  usually  accompanied  by  another  in  the  second 
foot  ;  as,  — 

Inde  toro  ||  pater  Aeneas  ||  sic  orsus  ab  alto  est. 

c)  Sometimes  the  caesura  occurs  between  the  two  short  syl- 
lables of  the  third  foot  ;  as,  — 

6  pass!  graviora  ||  dabit  deus  his  quoque  finem. 
This  caesura  is  called  Feminine  as  opposed  to  the  caesura 
after  a  long  syllable,  which  is  called  Masculine  (as  under  b 
and  c). 


246  Prosody. 

d)  A  pause  sometimes  occurs  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  foot. 
This  is  called  the  Bucolic  Diaeresis,  as  it  was  borrowed  by 
the  Romans  from  the  Bucolic  poetry  of  the  Greeks.  Thus  :  — 
solstitium  pecori  defendite  ;  ||  jam  venit  aestas. 


DACTYLIC   PENTAMETER. 

369.  i.    The  Dactylic  Pentameter  consists  of  two  parts, 
each  of  which  contains  two  dactyls,  followed  by  a  long 
syllable.      Spondees  may  take  the  place  of  the   dactyls 
in  the  first  part,  but  not  in  the  second.      The  long  syllable 
at  the  close  of  the  first  half  of  the  verse  always  ends  a 
word.     The  scheme  is  the  following :  — 

Z^.  Ow  _/_  OC/  _^_   II    -^Lwwjlv^w^ 

2.  The  Pentameter  is  never  used  alone,  but  only  in  connection  with 
the  Hexameter.  The  two  arranged  alternately  form  the  so-called  Ele- 
giac Distich.  Thus :  — 

Vergilium  vidi  tantum,  nee  amara  Tibullo 
Tempus  amicitiae  fata  dedere  meae. 

IAMBIC   MEASURES. 

370.  i.    The  most  important  Iambic  verse  is  the  Iambic 
Trimeter  (§  366,  n)  called  also  Senarius.     This  is  an  acata- 
lectic  verse.     It  consists  of  six  Iambi.     Its  pure  form  is  :  — 

\J  \J  \J  \J  \J  W  

Beatus  ille  qui  procul  negotiis. 

The  Caesura  usually  occurs  in   the  third  foot;   less  fre- 
quently in  the  fourth. 

2.  In  place  of  the  Iambus,  a  Tribrach  (w  w  w)  may  stand  in  any 
foot  but  the  last.     In  the  odd  feet  (first,  third,  and  fifth)  may  stand  a 
Spondee,  Dactyl,  or  Anapaest,  though  the  last  two  are  less  frequent. 
Sometimes  a  Proceleusmatic  (w  w  w  w)  occurs. 

3.  In  the  Latin  comic  writers,  Plautus  and  Terence,  great  free- 
dom is  permitted,  and  the  various  equivalents  of  the  Iambus,  viz. 
the  Dactyl,  Anapaest,  Spondee,  Tribrach,  Proceleusmatic,  are  freely 
admitted  in  any  foot  except  the  last. 


SUPPLEMENTS    TO   THE   GRAMMAR. 


I.    JULIAN   CALENDAR. 

371.  i .  The  names  of  the  Roman  months  are :  Januarius,  Februa- 
rius,  Martins.  Aprilis,  Maius,  Junius.  Julius  (Quintilis1  prior  to 
46  B.C.),  Augustus  (Sextilis1  prior  to  46  B.C.),  September,  Oct5- 
ber,  November,  December.  These  words  are  properly  Adjectives 
in  agreement  with  mensis  understood. 

2.  Dates  were  reckoned  from  three  points  in  the  month  :  — 

a)  The  Calends,  the  first  of  the  month. 

b)  The  Nones,  usually  the  fifth  of  the  month,  but  the  seventh 
in  March,  May,  July,  and  October. 

c)  The  Ides,  usually  the  thirteenth  of  the  month,  but  the  fif- 
teenth in  March,  May,  July,  and  October. 

3.  From  these  points  dates  were  reckoned  backward ;  consequently 
all  days  after  the  Ides^  of  any  month  were  reckoned-  as  so  many  days 
before  the  Calends  of  the  month  next  following. 

4.  The  day  before  the  Calends,  Nones,  or  Ides  of  any  month  is 
designated  as  pridie  Kalendas,  Nonas,  Idus.     The  second  day  be- 
fore was  designated  as  die  tertio  ante  Kalendas,  Nonas,  etc.     Simi- 
larly the  third  day  before  was  designated  as  die  quarto,  and  so  on. 
These  designations,  of  course,  are  arithmetically  inaccurate,  but  the 
Romans  reckoned  both  ends  of  the  series. 

5.  In  indicating  dates,  the  name  of  the  month  is  added  in  the  form 
of  an  Adjective  agreeing  with  Kalendas,  Nona's,  Idus.    Various  forms 
of  expression  occur,  of  which  that  given  under  d)  is  most  common :  — 

a)  die  qumto  ante  Idus  Martias  ; 

£)  qumto  ante  Idus  Martias  ; 

c)  qumto  (V)  Idus  Martias^ 

d)  ante  diem  quintum  (V)  Idus  Martias. 

1  Originally  the  Roman  year  began  with  March.  This  explains  the  names 
Quintilis,  Sextjlis,  September,  etc.,  fifth  month,  sixth  month,  etc, 

247 


248 


Supplements  to  the  Grammar. 


6.  These  designations  may  be  treated  as  nouns  and  combined  with 
the  prepositions  in,  ad,  ex ;  as,  — 

ad  ante  diem  IV  Kalendas  Octobres,  up  to  the  -2&th  of  September. 
ex  ante  diem  quintum  Idus  Octobres,  from  the  nth  of  October. 

7.  In  leap  year  the  25th  was  reckoned  as  the  extra  day  in  February. 
The  24th  was  designated  as  ante  diem  VI  Kalendas  Martias,  and 
the  25th  as  ante  diem  bis  VI  Kal.  Mart. 


372. 


CALENDAR. 


Days 
of  the 
Month. 

March,  May,  July, 
October. 

January,  August, 
December. 

April,  June,  Sep- 
tember, November. 

February. 

I 

KALENDlS. 

KALENDIS. 

KALENDIS. 

KALENDIS. 

2 

VI.         Nonas. 

IV.         Nonas. 

IV.         Nonas. 

IV.         Nonas. 

3 

V. 

III. 

III. 

III. 

4 

IV. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

5 

III. 

NONIS. 

NONlS. 

NONIS. 

6 

Pridie  Nonas. 

VIII.        Idus. 

VIII.        Idus. 

VIII.       Idus. 

7 

NONlS. 

VII. 

VII. 

VII. 

8 

VIII.       Idus. 

VI. 

VI. 

VI.         ;-    - 

9 

VII. 

V 

V. 

V. 

10 

VI. 

IV. 

IV.              "v 

IV. 

ii 

V. 

III. 

I  If. 

III. 

12 

IV. 

Pridie  Idus. 

Pridie  Idus. 

Pridie  Idus. 

13 

III. 

IDIBUS. 

IDIBUS. 

IDIBUS. 

14 

Pridie  Idus. 

XIX.      Kalend. 

XVIII.  Kalend: 

XVI.       Kalend. 

IS 

IDIBUS. 

XVIII. 

XVII.        " 

XV. 

16 

XVII.     Kalend. 

XVII. 

XVI. 

XIV. 

17 

XVI. 

XVI. 

XV. 

XIII. 

18 

XV. 

XV. 

XIV. 

XII. 

19 

XIV. 

XIV. 

XIII. 

XI. 

20 

XIII. 

XIII. 

XII. 

X. 

21 

XII. 

XII. 

XI. 

IX. 

22 

XI. 

XI. 

X. 

VIII. 

23 

X. 

X. 

IX. 

VII. 

24 

IX. 

IX. 

VIII. 

VI. 

25 
26 

VIII. 
VII. 

VIII. 
VII. 

VII. 
VI. 

V.  (VI.)      " 
IV.  (V.)      " 

27 

VI. 

VI. 

V. 

III.  (IV.)   " 

28 

V. 

V. 

IV. 

Prid.Kal.(III.Kal.) 

29 

IV. 

IV. 

III. 

(Prid.  Kal.) 

30 
31 

III. 
Pridie  Kalend. 

III. 

Pridie  Kalend. 

Pridie  Kalend. 

(Enclosed  forms  are 
for  leap-year.) 

Figures  of  Syntax.  249 


II.    ABBREVIATIONS   OF   PROPER  NAMES. 

373.        A.  =  Aulus.  Mam.  =  Mamercus. 

App.  =  Appius.  N.  =  Numerius. 

C.  =  Gaius.  P.  =  Fublius. 
Cn.  =  Gnaeus.  Q.  =  Qumtus. 

D.  =  Decimus.  Sex.  =  Sextus. 
K.  =  Kaeso.  Ser.  =  Servius. 
L.  =  Lucius.  Sp.  =  Spurius. 

M.  =  Marcus.  T.  =  Titus. 

M'.=  Manius.  Ti.  =  Tiberius. 


III.    FIGURES   OF   SYNTAX   AND   RHETORIC. 
A.    Figures  of  Syntax. 

374.     i .    Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words  ;  as,  — 
sed  enim  audierat,  but  (she  was  afraid),  for  she  had  heard,  etc. 

2.  Brachylogy  is  a  brief  or  condensed  form  of  expression;  as, — 
ut  ager  sine  cultura  fructuosus  esse  non  potest,  sic  sine  doc- 

trina  animus,  as  a  field  cannot  be  productive  without  cultiva- 
tion, so  the  mind  (cannot  be  productive)  without  learning. 

Special  varieties  of  Brachylogy  are  — 

a)  Zeugma,  in  which  one  verb  is  made  to  stand  for  two ;  as,  — * 
^ninis  aut  blandimentis  corrupta,  =  (terrified)  by  threats 

or  corrupted  by  flattery. 

b)  Compendiary   Comparison,   by  which  a   modifier  of  an 
object  is  mentioned  instead  of  the  object  itself;  as,  — 
dissimilis  erat  Chares  eorum  et  fact  is  et  moribus,  lit. 

Chares  was  different  from  their  conduct  and  character, 
i.e.  Chares's  conduct  and  character  were  different,  etc. 

3.  Pleonasm  is  an  unnecessary  fullness  of  expression ;  as, — 

prius  praedicam,  lit.  I  will  first  say  in  advance. 

4.  Hendiadys  (ev  8ta  Svotv,  one  through  two)  is  the  use  of  two 
nouns  joined  by  a  conjunction,  in  the  sense  of  a  noun  modified  by  a 
Genitive  or  an  Adjective  ;  as,  — 

f  ebris  et  aestus,  the  heat  of  fever ; 
celeritate  cursuque,  by  swift  running. 


250  Figures  of  Syntax  and  Rhetoric. 

5.  Prol^psis,  or  Anticipation,  is  the  introduction  of  an  epithet 
in  advance  of  the  action  which  makes  it  appropriate :  as,  — 
submersas   obrue   puppes,   lit.   overwhelm  their   submerged  ships, 

i.e.  overwhelm  and  sink  their  ships. 

a.  The  name  Prolepsis  is  also  applied  to  the  introduction  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun  as  object  of  the  main  clause  where  we 
should  expect  it  to  stand  as  subject  of  a  subordinate  clause. 
Thus :  — 

nosti  Marcellum  quam  tardus  sit,  you  know  how  slow 
Marcellus  is  (lit.  you  know  Marcellus,  how  slow  he  is). 
Both  varieties  of  Prolepsis  are  chiefly  confined  to  poetry. 

6.  Anacoliithon  is  a  lack  of  grammatical  consistency  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  sentence ;  as,  — 

turn  Anci  filii  .  .  .  impensius  els  indignitas  crescere,  then  the  sons 
of  Ancus  .  .  .  their  indignation  increased  all  the  more. 

7.  H^steron  Frdteron  consists  in  the  inversion  of  the  logical 
order  of  two  words  or  phrases  ;  as,  — 

moriamur  et  in  media  arm  a  ruamus  =  let  us  rush  into  the  midst  of 
arms  and  die. 

B.    Figures  of  Rhetoric. 

375.    i.    Litotes  is  the  use   of  two   negatives  for  an  emphatic 
affirmative ;  as,  —  ^ 

baud  parum  laboris,  no  little  toil  (i.e.  much  toil)  ; 
non  ignore,  I  am  not  ignorant  (i.e.  I  am  well  aware). 

2.  Oxymdron    is    the    combination    of    contradictory    concep- 
tions ;  as,  — 

sapiens  insania,  wise  folly. 

3.  Alliteration   is   the    employment    of  a   succession    of   words 
presenting  frequent   repetition   of  the   same   letter   (mostly   initial) ; 
as,  sensim  sine  sensu  aetas  senescit. 

4.  Onomatopoeia  is  the  suiting  of  sound  to  sense  ;  as,  — 
quadrupedante  putrem  sonitu  quatit  ungula  campum,  'And  shake 

with  horny  hoofs  the  solid  ground? 


INDEX   TO    THE    PRINCIPAL    PARTS    OF    THE 
MOST   IMPORTANT   VERBS. 


NOTE.  —  Compounds  are  not  given  unless  they  present  some  special  irregularity.    Th< 

references  are  to  sections. 

A. 

ascendo,  122,  I,  4. 

COlO,  122,  I,  5. 

aspicio,  122,  III. 

comminiscor,  122,  V. 

abdo,  122,  1,2. 

assentior,  123,  VII. 

comperio,  123,  V. 

abicio,  122,  III. 

assuefacio,  122,  III. 

compleo,  121,  I. 

abnuo,  122,  II. 

assuefio,  122,  III. 

concutio,  122,  III. 

aboleo,  121,  I. 

audio,  123,  I. 

condo,  122,  I,  2. 

absterged,  121,  III. 

aufero,  129. 

confero,  129. 

absum,  125. 

augeo,  121,  III. 

confiteor,  121,  VII. 

accendo,  122,  I,  4. 

aveo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  2. 

congruo,  122,  II. 

accidit,  138,  III. 

consenesco,  122,  IV,  2. 

accio,  121,  I,  N. 

consero,  122,  I,  5. 

accipio,  122,  III. 

C. 

consero,  122,  I,  6  (plant). 

acquire,  122,  I,  6. 

cado,  122,  I,  2. 

consido,  122,  I,  4. 

acu5,  122,  II. 

caedo,  122,  I,  2. 

consisto,  122,  I,  2. 

addo,  122,  I,  2. 

calefacio,  122,  III. 

conspicio,  122,  III. 

adhaeresco,  122,  IV,  2. 

caleflo,  122,  III. 

constat,  138,  III. 

adipiscor,  122,  V. 

caleo,  121,  II,  a. 

constituo,  122,  II. 

adolesco,  122,  IV,  i. 

calesco,  122,  IV,  2. 

consuesco,  122,  IV,  i. 

adsum,  125. 

cano,  122,  I,  2. 

consulo,  122,  I,  5. 

advenio,  123,  IV. 

capesso,  122,  I,  6. 

contineo,  121,  II,  b. 

affero,  129. 

capio,  122,  III. 

contingit,  138,  III. 

afficio,  122,  III. 

careo,  121,  II,  a. 

coquo,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

affligo,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

carpo,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

crepo,  1  20,  II. 

agnosco,  122,  IV,  i. 

caveo,  121,  V. 

cresc5,  122,  IV,  i. 

ago,  122,  I,  3. 

cedo,  122,  I,  i,  b. 

cubo,  120,  II. 

algeo,  121,  III. 

censeo,  121,  II,  b. 

cupio,  122,  III. 

alo,  122,  I,  5. 

cerno,  122,  I,  6. 

curro,  122,  I,  2. 

amicio,  123,  III. 

cieo,  121,  I. 

amo,  120,  I. 

cingo,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

D. 

amplector,  122,  V. 

circumsisto,  122,  I,  2. 

ango,  122,  I,  7. 

claudo,  122,  I,  i,  b. 

debeo,  121,  II,  a. 

aperio,  123,  II. 

claudo,  122,  I,  7. 

decerno,  122,  I,  6. 

appeto,  122,  I,  6. 

coemo,  122,  I,  3. 

decet,  138,  II. 

arceo,  121,  II,  a. 

coepT,  133. 

dedecet,  138,  II. 

arcesso,  122,  I,  6. 

coerceo,  121,  II,  a. 

dedo,  122,  I,  2. 

ardeo,  121,  III. 

cognosce,  122,  IV,  i. 

defendo,  122,  I,  4. 

aresco,  122,  IV,  2. 

cogo,  122,  I,  3. 

deleo,  121,  I. 

arguo,  122,  II. 

COlllgO,  122,  I,  3. 

deligo,  122,  I,  3. 

2CI 

252 


Index  to  the  Principal  Parts 

The  references  are  to  sections. 


demo,  122,  I,  3. 

ferveo,  121,  VI. 

ingemisco,  122,  IV,  2. 

desero,  122,  I,  5. 

figo,  122,  I,  itb. 

msum,  125. 

desino,  122,  I,  6. 

findo,  122,  I,  2,  N. 

intellego,  122,  I,  3. 

desum,  125. 

fingo,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

interficio,  122,  III. 

dico,  122,  I,  I,  a. 

flo,  131. 

intersum,  125. 

differo,  129. 

flecto,  122,  I,  1,6. 

invado,  p.  87,  footnote. 

diligo,  122,  I,  3. 

fleo,  121,  I. 

invenio,  123,  IV. 

dlmico,  120,  II. 

floreo,  121,  11,  a,  N.  i. 

Irascor,  122,  V. 

dirimo,  122,  I,  3. 

fluo,  122,  II. 

dlripio,  122,  III. 

floresco,  122,  IV,  2. 

diruo,  122,  II. 

fodio,  122,  III. 

J. 

discerno,  122,  I,  6. 

foveo,  121,  V. 

jaceo,  121,  II,  a. 

disco,  122,  IV,  i. 

frango,  122,  I,  3. 

jacio,  122,  III. 

dissero,  122,  I,  5. 

fremo,  122,  I,  5. 

jubeo,  121,  III. 

distinguo,  p.  87,  footnote. 

frico,  120,  II. 

jungo,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

divide,  122,  I,  i,  b. 

frigeo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  2. 

juvo,  120,  III. 

do,  127. 

fruor,  122,  V. 

doceo,  121,  II,  b. 

fugio,  122,  III. 

doleo,  121,  II,  a. 

fulcio,  123,  III. 

L. 

domo,  120,  II. 

fulgeo,  121,  III. 

duco,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

fulget,  138,  I. 

labor,  122,  V. 

fundo,  122,  I,  3. 

lacesso,  122,  I,  6. 

fungor,  122,  V. 

laedo,  122,  I,  i,  b. 

E. 

furo,  122,  I,  7. 

lambo,  122,  I,  7. 

edo,  122,  I,  2. 

largior,  123,  VII. 

edo,  122,  I,  3. 

lateo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 

effero,  129. 

G. 

lavo,  120,  III. 

effugio,  122,  III. 
egeo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 
elicio,  122,  III. 
emineo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 
emo,  122,  I,  3. 

gemo,  122,  I,  5. 
gero,  122,  I,  i,  a. 
glgno,  122,  I,  5. 
gradior,  122,  V. 

lego,  122,  I,  3. 
libet,  138,  II. 
liceor,  121,  VII. 
licet,  138,  II. 
loquor,  122,  V. 

luceo,  121,  III. 

eo,  132. 
esurio,  123,  VI. 

H. 

ludo,  122,  I,  i,  b. 

evado,  p.  87,  footnote. 

habeo,  121,  II,  a. 

lugeo,  121,  III. 

evanesce,  122,  IV,  3. 

haereo,  121,  III. 

1UO,  122,  II. 

excolo,  122,  I,  5. 

haurio,  123,  III. 

excudo,  122,  I,  4. 

horreo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 

M. 

exerceo,  121,  II,  a. 

experior,  123,  VII. 

T 

maereo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  2. 

expleo,  121,  I,  N. 

i. 

malo,  130. 

explico,  120,  II. 

ignosco,  122,  IV,  i. 

maneo,  121,  III. 

exstinguo,  p.  87,  footnote. 

illicio,  122,  III. 

maturesco,  122,  IV,  3. 

extimesco,  122,  IV,  2. 

imbuo,  122,  II. 

medeor,  121,  VII. 

immineo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  2. 

meminl,  133. 

impleo,  121,  I,  N. 

mereo,  121,  II,  a. 

. 

implico,  120,  II. 

mereor,  121,  VII. 

facio,  122,  III. 

incipio,  122,  III. 

mergo,  122,  I,  I,  b. 

fallo,  122,  I,  2. 

incolo,  122,  I,  5. 

metior,  123,  VII. 

fateor,  121,  VII. 

incumbo,  122,  I,  5. 

metuo,  122,  II. 

faveo,  121,  V. 

indulged,  121,  III. 

mico,  120,  II. 

ferio,  123,  VI. 

induo,  122,  II. 

minuo,  122,  II. 

fero,  129. 

Infero,  129. 

misceo,  121,  II,  b. 

of  the  Most  Important  Verbs. 

The  references  are  to  sections. 


253 


miseret,  138,  II. 

patefacio,  122,  III. 

R. 

misereor,  121,  VII. 

patefio,  122,  III. 

rado,  122,  I,  i,  b. 

mitto,  122,  I,  i,  b. 

pateo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 

rapio,  122,  III. 

molo,  122,  I,  5. 

patior,  122,  V. 

reddo,  122,  I,  2. 

moneo,  121,  II,  a. 

paveo,  121,  V. 

redimo,  122,  I,  3. 

mordeo,  121,  IV. 

pellicio,  122,  III. 

refercio,  123,  III. 

morior,  122,  V. 

pello,  122,  1,  2. 

refero,  129. 

moveo,  121,  V. 

pendeo,  121,  IV. 

refert,  138,  II. 

pendo,  122,  I,  2. 

rego,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

N. 

perago,  122,  I,  3. 
percello,  122,  I,  2,  N. 

relinquo,  122,  I,  3. 
reminlscor,  122,  V. 

nanciscor,  122.  V. 
nascor,  122,  V. 
necto,  122,  I,  i,  b. 
neglego,  122,  I,  3. 
ningit,  138,  I. 
niteo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 
nitor,  122,  V. 

percrebresc5,  122,  IV,  3. 
perdo,  122,  I,  2. 
perficio,  122,  III. 
perfringo,  122,  I,  3. 
perfruor,  122,  V. 
perlego,  122,  I,  3. 
permulceo,  121,  III. 

reor,  121,  VII. 
reperio,  123  V. 

repo,  122,  i,  i,  a. 
resisto,  122,  I,  2. 
respuo,  122,  II. 
restinguo,  p.  87,  footnote, 
retineo,  121,  II,  b. 

noceo,  121,  II,  a. 
nolo,  130. 

perpetior,  122,  V. 
pervado,  p.  87,  footnote. 

rideo,  121,  III. 
rodo,  122,  I,  i,  b. 

nosco,  122,  IV,  i. 

peto,  122,  I,  6. 

rubeo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 

nubo,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

piget,  138,  II. 

rumpo,  122,  I,  3. 

pingo,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

ruo,  122,  II. 

placeo,  121,  II,  a. 

O. 

plaudo,  122,  I,  i,  b. 

pluit,  138,  I. 

S. 

obduresco,  122,  IV,  3. 

polleo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  2. 

saepio,  123,  III. 

oblino,  122,  I,  6. 

polliceor,  121,  VII. 

salio,  123,  II. 

obliviscor,  122,  V. 

polluo,  122,  II. 

sancio,  123,  III. 

obmutesco,  122,  IV,  3. 

pono,  122,  I,  6. 

sapio,  122,  III. 

obruo,  122,  II. 

pOSCO,  122,  IV,  I. 

sarcio,  123,  III. 

obsolesco,  122,  IV,  i. 

pOSSldO,  122,  I,  4. 

scindo,  122,  I,  2,  N. 

obsum,  125. 

possum,  126. 

SC1SCO,  122,  IV,  2. 

obtineo,  121,  II,  b. 

p6tO,  I2O,  I. 

scribo,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

odi,  133. 

praebeo,  121,  II,  a. 

sculpo,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

offero,  129. 

praestat,  138,  III. 

seco,  120,  II. 

oleo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 

praesum,  125. 

sedeo,  121,  V. 

operio,  123,  II. 

prandeo,  121,  VI. 

sentio,  123,  III. 

oportet,  138,  II. 

prehendo,  122,  I,  4. 

sepelio,  123,  I. 

opperior,  123,  VII. 

premo,  122,  I,  i,  b. 

sequor,  122,  V. 

ordior,  123,  VII. 

prodo,  122,  I,  2. 

sero,  122,  I,  6. 

orior,  123,  VII. 

promo,  122,  I,  3. 

serpo,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

prosum,  125. 

sileo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 

prosterno,  122,  I,  6. 

sino,  122,  I,  6. 

. 

pudet,  138,  II. 

solvo,  122,  I,  4. 

paenitet,  138,  II. 

pungo,  122,  I,  2. 

sono,  120,  II. 

palleo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 

spargo,  122,  I,  i,  b. 

pando,  122,  1,  4. 

o 

sperno,  122,  I,  6. 

parco,  122,  I,  2. 

V- 

splendeo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 

pareo,  121,  II,  a. 

quaero,  122,  I,  6. 

spondeo,  121,  IV. 

pario,  122,  III. 

quatio,  122,  III. 

statuo,  122,  II. 

pasco,  122,  IV,  i. 

queror,  122,  V. 

sterno,  122,  I,  6. 

pascor,  122,  IV,  i. 

quiesco,  122,  IV.  i. 

-stinguo,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

254 


Index  to  the  Most  Important   Verbs. 

The  references  are  to  sections. 


strepo,  122,  I,  5. 

exo,  122,  I,  5. 

V. 

strideo,  121,  VI. 

timeo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 

vado,  122,  I,  i,  0. 

stringo,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

ingo,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

valeo,  121,  II,  a. 

struo,  122,  II. 

tollo,  122,  I,  2,  N. 

veho,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

studeo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 

tonat,  138,  I. 

vello,  122,  I,  4. 

suadeo,  121,  III. 

tondeo,  121,  IV. 

venio,  123,  IV. 

subigo,  122,  I,  3. 

tono,  120,  II. 

vereor,  121,  VII. 

subsum,  125. 

torpeo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 

vergo,  122,  I,  7. 

sum,  100. 

torqueo,  121,  III. 

verro,  122,  I,  4. 

sumo,  122,  I,  3. 

torreo,  121,  II,  b. 

verto,  122,  I,  4. 

SUO,  122,  II. 

trado,  122,  I,  2. 

vescor,  122,  V. 

supersum,  125. 

traho,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

veto,  120,  II. 

sustineo,  121,  II,  b. 

tremo,  122,  I,  5. 

video,  121,  V. 

tribuo,  122,  II. 

vigeo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  I. 

trudo,  122,  I,*i,  b. 

vincio,  123,  III. 

T. 

tueor,  121,  VII. 

vinco,  122,  I,  3. 

taceo,  121,  II,  a. 

tundo,  122,  I,  2. 

vireo,  121,  II,  at  N.  i. 

taedet,  138,  II. 

V1SO,  122,  I,  4. 

tango,  122,  I,  2. 

U. 

VIVO,  122,  I,  I,  Cl. 

tego,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

volo,  130. 

temno,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

ulciscor,  122,  V. 

VOlvO,  122,  I,  4. 

tendo,  122,  I,  2. 

unguo,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

vomo,  122,  I,  5. 

teneo,  121,  II,  b. 

urgeo,  121,  III. 

voveo,  121,  V. 

tero,  122,  I,  6. 

uro,  122,  I,  i,  a. 

terreo,  121,  II,  a. 

utor,  122,  V. 

GENERAL    INDEX. 


The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


a,  ab,  abs,  use,  142,  i. 
a  to  denote  agency,  216. 

to  denote  separation,  214. 

with  town  names,  229,  2. 

Ablative  case,  17. 

formation  of  sing,  of  adjs.  of  3d 

decl.,  67,  a ;  70,  1-5. 

genuine  abl.  uses,  214  f. 

absolute,  227. 

of  agent,  216. 

of  accompaniment,  222. 

of  attendant  circumstance,  221. 

of  cause,  219. 

of  comparison,  217. 

—  of  degree  of  difference,  223. 

of  manner,  220. 

of  means,  218. 

of  place  where,  228. 

of  place  whence,  229. 

of  price,  225. 

of  quality,  224.    N 

of  separation,  214. 

of  source,  215. 

of  specification,  226. 

of  time  at  which,  230. 

of  time  during  which,  231,  i. 

of  time  within  which,  231. 

of  way  by  which,  218,  9. 

with /acid,  fid,  218,  6. 

with  verbs  of  filling,  218,  8. 

with  adjs.  of  plenty,  218,  8. 

Absolute  time,  of  participles,  336,  4. 

use  of  verbs,  174,  a. 

Abstract  nouns,  12,  2,  b}. 

-abus,  21,  2.  e). 

ac,  341,  2,  b}  ;  —  as,  than,  341,  i,  c). 

ac  si,  307,  i. 

Acatalectic  verses,  366,  9. 


Accent,  6. 

•Accusative  case,  17 ;  172  f. 

of  duration  of  time,  181. 

of  result  produced,  173,  B  \  176. 

of  extent  of  space,  181. 

of  limit  of  motion,  182. 

of  person  or  thing  affected,  173,  A ; 

175; 

in  exclamations,  183. 

as  subj.  of  inf.,  184. 

with  adv.  force,  176,  3. 

with  compounds,  175,  2. 

with  passive  used  as  middle,  175, 

2,d}. 

cognate  ace.,  176,  4. 

Greek  ace.,  180. 

synecdochical  ace.,  180. 

two  aces.,  direct  obj.  and  pred.  ace., 

177;  person  affected  and  result  pro- 
duced, 178 ;  with  compounds  of  trans, 
179. 

retained  in  pass.,  178,  2. 

deer,  68. 

-ades,  148,  6,  a. 

adg;  =  agg;  9,  2- 

Adjectives,  62  f. 

of  ist  and  2d  decl.,  63  ff. 

of  3d  decl.,  67  ff. 

comparison  of  adjs.  in  -er,  71,  3 ;  in 

-His,  71,  4 ;  comparative  lacking,  73,  3  ; 
defective  comparison,  73 ;  not  admit- 
ting comparison,  75 ;  comparison  by 
magis  and  maxime,  74. 

syntax,  233  ff. 

agreement,  234  f. 

used  substantively,  236  f. 

denoting  part  of  an  object,  241,  i. 

with  force  of  adverbs,  239. 

force  of  comparatiye_and   superl., 

240,  i. 


General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Adjectives,  equiv.  to  rel.  clause,  241,  2. 

as  pred.  ace.,  177,  2. 

position  of  adj.,  350,  4. 

adl-  =  all-,  9,  2. 
admoneo,  const.,  207. 
adr-  —  arr-,  9,  2. 
ads-  =  ass-,  9,  2. 
adulescens,  9,  2. 
adultus,  114,  2. 

Adverbs,    formation    and    comparison, 
76  f. ;  140. 

in  -iter  from  adjs.  in  -us,  77,  4. 

in  -d,  77,  2. 

as  preps.,  144,  2. 

derivation  of,  157. 

special  meanings,  347. 

position,  350,  6. 

Adversative  clauses,  309. 

conjunctions,  343. 

-aeus,  152,  3. 
aevom,  24. 
ain,  135,  N. 

ajo,  135- 

alacer,  comp.,  73,  4. 

aliqua,  91,  2. 

aliqui,  91 ;  91,  2. 

aliquis,  91 ;  252,  2. 

-5/z.r,  151,  2. 

alms,  66 ;  used  correlatively,  253,  i. 

£/?'#.?  ac,  341,  i,  £). 

Alliteration,  375,  3. 

Alphabet,  i. 

alter,  66;  used  correlatively,  253,  i. 

alteruter,  92,  2. 

amandus  sum,  115. 

amaturus  sum,  115. 

fl#z£<?,  80,  2,  a  ;  355,  2. 

amo,  101. 

amplius  =  amplius  quam,  257,  3. 

Anacoluthon,  374,  6. 

Anapaest,  366,  2. 

Anaphora,  350,  n,  b). 

Anastrophe  of  prep.,  144,  3. 

animi,  232,  3.  ' 

Answers,  162,  5. 

ante  in  expressions  of  time,  357,  i. 

Antecedent  of  rel.,  251. 

incorporated  with  rel.,  251,  4. 

omitted,  251,  i. 

repeated  with  rel.,  251,  3. 

Antepenult,  6,  2. 

antequam,  with  ind.,  291 ;  with  subjv.,  292. 

Anticipation,  374,  5. 


-anus,  151,  2 ;  152,  i ;  3. 
Apodosis,  301. 

in    conditional    sent,  of   ist    type, 

302,  4. 

Apposition,  169. 
Appositive  of  locative,  169,  4. 

position  of,  350,  2. 

-or  is,  151,  2. 

-arium,  148,  3. 

-arms,  151,  2. 

Arsis,  366,  6. 

Aspirates,  2,  3,  c). 

Assimilation  of  consonants,  8,  4;  5. 

Asyndeton,  341,  4,  a)  ;  346. 

«?,  343.  !.<*)• 
-atim,  157,  2. 

,  341,  2,  £)  ;   =  £.r,  341,  I,  *:). 

,  343,  i,  e). 
Attraction  of  Demonstratives,  246,  5. 
audeo,  114,  i. 

audio,  107;  with  pres.  partic.,  337,  3. 
a^lt,  342,  i,  a), 
autem,  343,  i,  c] ;  350,  8. 
-a*,  150,  2. 


£<?//J,  232,  2. 

bene,  comparison,  77,  i. 

-bilis,  150,4. 

bljugis,  362,  4. 

bonus,  63  ;  comparison,  72. 

bos,  41. 

Brachylogy,  374,  2. 

-bulum,  147,  4. 

-bundus,  150,  i. 

C. 

Caesura,  366,  8  ;    in  dactylic  hexameter, 

368,  3- 

Calendar,  371 ;  372. 
Calends,  371,  2,  a), 
cap  id,  no. 
Cardinals,  78,  i ;  79. 
card,  42. 

Cases,  17 ;  170  ff. 
Case-endings,  17,  3. 
Catalectic  verses,  366,  9. 
Causal  clauses,  285 ;  286. 

conjunctions,  345. 

causa,  with  gen.,  198,  i. 
cave,  363,  2,  b). 


General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


257 


-<*,  6,  3, 

cedo,  cette,  137,  3. 

celer,  68,  2. 

celo,  construction,  178,  I,  e). 

cenatus,  114,  2. 

cetera,  185,  2. 

ceterl,  253,  4. 

Chiasmus,  350,  n,£). 

citerior,  73,  I. 

Clauses  of  characteristic,  283. 

£0<r/I,  133;  coeptus  cst,  133,  I. 

*4?».  331,  VI. 

Collective  nouns,  12,  2,  rt). 

Common  gender,  15,  B,  N,  I. 

nouns,  12,  i. 

vowels,  5,  At  2,  N. 

syllables,  5,  B,  3. 

commonefacio ,  207. 

commoneo,  207. 

communis,  with  gen.,  204,  2 ;   with  dat., 

2O4,  2,  a. 

Compendiary  comparison,  374,  2,  £). 

Compounds,  158  f. 

Compound  sentences,  164. 

Conative  uses  of  pres.,  259,  2 ;  of  imperf., 
260,  3 ;  of  pres.  partic.,  336,  2,  a. 

Concessive  clauses,  308. 

subjunctive,  278. 

Concrete  nouns,  12,  2,  a). 

Conditional  clauses  of  comparison,  307. 

sentences,  ist  type,  302 ;   in  indir. 

disc.,  319 ;  2\i  type,  303 ;  in  indir.  disc., 
320 ;  3d  type,  304 ;  in  indir.  disc.,  321. 

confido,  219,  i,  a. 

Conjugation,  ii ;  93  f. ;  the  four  conju- 
gations distinguished,  98 ;  peculiarities 
of  conjugation,  116. 

conor,  with  inf.,  295,  5,  a. 

cons  ist  ere,  with  abl.,  218,  4. 

Consonants,  2,  2. 

Consonant  changes,  8. 

stems,  29 ;   following  analogy  of  l- 

stems,  40. 

Construction  ace.  to  sense,  254,  4;  235, 
B,  2,  c). 

cbnsuevl  =  pres.,  262,  A. 

contentus,  219,  i. 

continerl,  with  abl.,  218,  4. 

Contraction,  7,  2. 

Coordinate  clauses,  165. 

conjunctions,  341  f. 

Copulative  conjunctions,  341. 

Correlative  conjunctions,  341,  3;  342,  2. 
S 


cottidie,  9,  2. 
-crum,  147,  4. 
-culum,  147,  4. 
-culus  (a,  um),  148,  i. 
cum,  appended,  142,  4. 
cum, '  when,'  288-290. 

adversative,  309,  3. 

causal,  286,  2. 

explicative,  290. 

to  denote  a  recurring  action,  288, 3 ; 

289,  a. 

'  when  suddenly,'  288,  2. 

cum  .  .  .  turn,  290,  2. 
cumprimum,  287,  I. 
-cundus,  150,  i. 
cup  id,  331,  IV,  and  a. 

D. 

Dactyl,  366,  2. 

Dactylic  hexameter,  368. 

pentameter,  369. 

Dates,  371,  2-5;  as  indeclinable  nouns, 

371,  6;  in  leap  year,  371,  7. 
Dative,  17 ;   186  ff. 

of  agency,  189. 

of  direction,  193. 

of  indir.  obj.,  187. 

of  local  standpoint,  188,  2,  a). 

of  person  judging,  188,  2,  c). 

of  possession,  190. 

of  purpose,  191. 

of  reference,  188. 

of  separation,  188,  2,  d). 

with  adjs.,  192. 

with  compound  verbs,  187,  III. 

with  intrans.  verbs,  187,  II. 

with  pass,  verbs,  187,  II,  b. 

with  trans,  verbs,  187,  I. 

with  verbs  of  mingling,  358,  3. 

—  ethical  dat,  188,  2,  b). 
debebam,  debul  in  apodosis,  304,  3,  d). 
debul,  with  pres.  inf.,  270,  2. 
Declaratory  sentences  in  indir.  disc.,  314. 
Declension,  11. 
Defective  verbs,  133  f. 
Deliberative  subjv.,  277;  in  indir.  disc., 

315,  3- 

Demonstrative  pronouns,  87 ;  246. 
Denominative  verbs,  156. 
Dental  mutes,  2,  4. 

stems,  33. 

Deponent  verbs,  112. 


2S8 


General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Derivatives,  147  f. 

Desideratives,  155,  3. 

deter  ior,  73,  I. 

dextrum,  185,  2. 

deus,  25,  4. 

d  ever  tor,  114,  3. 

Diaeresis,  366,  8 ;  bucolic  d.,  368,  3,  d). 

Diastole,  367,  2. 

die,  116,  3. 

-dicus,  comparison  of  adjs.  in,  71,  5. 

difficile  est,  271,  I,  £). 

dlgnus,  226,  2 ;  in  rel.  clauses  of  purpose, 

282,  3. 

Dimeter  verses,  366,  n. 
Diminutives,  148,  i. 

Diphthongs,  3,  2 ;  diphthong  stems,  41. 
Direct  reflexives,  244,  i. 
Disjunctive  conjunctions,  342. 
Distributives,  78,  i ;  79;  81,  4. 
diu,  compared,  77,  i. 
dlxtl,  116,  4,  c. 
do,  127. 
doceo,  with  ace.,  178,  i,  b) ;  with  inf.,  331, 

VI. 

doml,  232,  2. 
domo,  229,  i,  b). 
domds,  182,  i,  b. 
domum,  182,  I,  £). 
domus,  49,  4. 
donee,  with  ind.,  293;   with  subjv.,  293, 

III,  2. 

Double  consonants,  2, 9. 

questions,  162,  4. 

due,  116,  3. 

dfc/jK,  dfozw/,  127,  2. 

^«/w,  temporal  with  ind.,  293 ;  with  subjv., 

293,  III,  2;   in  wishes  and  provisos, 

310. 

dummodo,  310. 
-dum,  6,  3. 
duo,  80,  2. 


£,  «;,  use,  142,  2. 

ecquis,  91,  6. 

£<#£,  1 1 6,  3. 

*?d?0,  128. 

oftfc,  116,  3. 

<yo,  84. 

egdmet,  84,  2. 

-m,  148,  6,  b}. 

Elegiac  distich,  369,  2. 


Elision,  366,  7. 

Ellipsis,  374,  i. 

-ellus  (a,  uni),  148,  i. 

Emphasis,  349. 

enim,  345. 

-ensimus  (-ensumus) ,  79,  N. 

-ens is,  151,  2;  152,  3. 

eo,  132 ;  cpds.,  132,  i. 

Epistolary  tenses,  265. 

epistula,  9,  2. 

equos,  24. 

*W344»  i,  £)• 

-ernus,  154. 

^jj^,  omitted,  116,  5. 

<?j/  ^«J,  with  subjv.,  283,  2. 

*/,    341,    i,    a;    in    enumerations,    341, 

4,0- 

£/  w,  247,  4. 
et  .  .  .  neque,  341,  3. 
et  ridn,  341,  2,  £). 
<?/j/,  'although,'  309,  2;    */,«,  'even  if,' 

309,  2,  «. 
-etum,  148,  3. 
-««,  151,  i. 
exsistd,  9,  2. 
exspecto,  9,  2. 
<r^/^rJ,  73,  2. 

F. 

^,  116,  3. 
falsus,  73,  3. 
y2zw^,  59,  2,  a). 
familias,  21,  2,  fl). 
/are,  136. 
fellx,  70. 
femur,  42,  4. 
yfcr£,  129. 
ferus,  75,  2. 

3/f^j,  comparison  of  adjs.  in,  71,  5. 
fidei,  362,  i,  £. 
fido,  114,  i. 

fldo,  with  abl.,  219,  i,  a. 
/7^«j,  73,  3. 

fierem,  fieri,  362,  i,  £). 
Fifth  decl.,  51. 
Figures  of  rhetoric,  375. 

of  syntax,  374. 

f\l*>  25,  3. 

Final  consonant  omitted,  8,  3. 

Finite  verb,  95. 

fid,  131. 

fid,  with  abl.,  218,  6. 

First  conj.,  101. 


General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


259 


First  decl.,  20  f. 
Foot,  in  verse,  366,  2. 
fore,  page  57,  footnote. 
fore  ut,  270,  3. 

forem,  fores,  etc.,  page  57,  footnote  2. 
for is,  228,  i,  c. 
fors,  forte,  57,  2,  a. 
fortior,  69. 
fortis,  69. 

Fourth  conjugation,  107. 
Fourth  declension,  48  ;  dat.  in  -«,  49,  2 ; 
gen.  in  -I,  49,  i ;  dat.  abl.  plu.  in  -ubus, 

49,3- 

Frequentatives,  155,  2. 
fr'etus,  218,  3. 
/r«£7,  72. 
fruor,  with   abl.,   218,   i;    in  gerundive 

const.,  339,  4. 
Fricatives,  2,  7. 
fungor,  218,  i. 
Future  tense,  261. 

time  in  the  subjv.,  269. 

—  perfect,  264. 
futurum  esse  ut,  with  subjv.,  270,  3. 

G. 

Gender,  13-15;  in  2d  decl.,  26;  in  3d 
decl.,  43  f. ;  in  4th  decl.,  50;  in  5th 
decl.,  53  ;  determined  by  endings,  14 ; 
by  signification,  15  A. 

Genitive,  17;  in  -I  for  -it,  25,  i;  2;  of 
5th  decl.  in  -el,  52,  i ;  in  -e,  52,  3 ;  in 
-*,  52,  2;  of  ist  decl.  in  -al,  21,  2,  b)  ; 
gen.  plu.  -um  for  -arum,  21,  2,  d)  ; 
-u m  for  -drum,  25,  6 ;  gen.  plu.  lacking, 
57.  7  \  syntax  of,  194  f. 

of  indefinite  price,  203,  4. 

of  indefinite  value,  203,  3. 

of  material,  197. 

— —  of  origin,  196. 

of  possession,  198. 

of  quality,  203. 

of  the  whole,  201. 

appositional,  202. 

objective,  200. 

subjective,  199. 

with  adjs.,  204. 

with  verbs,  205  f. ;  of  plenty  and 

want,  212 ;  with  impers.  verbs,  209. 

position  of  gen.,  350,  i, 

Gerund,  338. 

Gerundive,  337,  7. 


Gerundive  const,  339, 1-6 ;  gen.  denoting 

purpose,  339,  6. 
gnarus,  not  compared,  75,  2. 
gratia,  with  gen.,  198,  i. 
Greek  nouns,  ist  decl.,  22 ;  2d  decl.,  27 ; 

3d  decl.,  47. 
gu=gv,  3,3. 
Guttural  mutes,  2,  4. 

—  stems,  32. 

H. 

haded,  with  perf.  pass,  partic.,  337,  6. 
Hadria,  21,  i. 
haud,  use,  347,  2,  a. 
have,  137,  5. 
Hendiadys,  374,  4. 
herl,  232,  2. 
Heteroclites,  59. 
Heterogeneous  nouns,  60. 
hie,  87 ;  '  the  following,'  246,  2 ;  '  the  lat- 
ter,' 246,  i. 

Historical  tenses,  258. 
Hortatory  subjv.,  274. 
hoscine,  87,  footnote  2. 
hujusce,  87,  footnote  2. 
huml,  232,  2. 
Hyperbaton,  350,  II,  a). 
Hypermeter,  367,  6. 
Hysteron  proteron,  374,  7. 

I. 

i,  becomes/,  367,  4. 

z-stems,  37;    39;    not  always  ending  in 

-is,  38,  2. 
z-stem,  vis,  41. 
-ia,  149. 
Iambus,  366,  2. 
Iambic  measures,  370. 

trimeter,  370. 

-ianus,  152,  I. 

-ias,  148,  6,  b}. 

-Ibam,  in  imperf.,  116,  4,  b). 

-ibo,  in  future,  116,  4,  b}. 

Ictus,  366,  5. 

-icus,  151,  2;  152,  2. 

id  aetatis,  185,  2. 

id  genus,  185,  i. 

id  temporis,  185,  2. 

id  quod,  247,  i,  b. 

Idem,  87 ;  248. 

Idem  ac,  248,  2, 


260 


General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Ides,  371,  2,  £). 

-ides,  148,  6,  a). 

-Ides,  148,  6,  a). 

-idd,  147,3,  £). 

idoneus,  with  rel.  clause  of  purpose,  282, 3. 

-Idas,  150,  3. 

-ier,  inf.  ending,  116,  4,  a. 

igitur,  344,  i,  *). 

-*/*?,  148,  3. 

-z/zj,  151,  2. 

-*7£f,  150,  4. 

Illative  conjunctions,  344. 

tile,  87;    'the  following,'   246,  2;    'the 

former,1  246,  i ;  '  the  well-known,'  246, 

3 ;  position,  350,  5,  b. 
illuc,  87,  footnote  3. 
-illus  (a,  um),  148,  I. 
Imperative,  281. 
as  protasis  of  a  conditional  sent., 

305.  2. 

sent,  in  indir.  disc.,  316. 

Imperfect  tense,  260. 

subjv.  in  conditional  sent,  referring 

to  the  past,  304,^2. 

Impersonal  verbs,  138. 

impetus,  defective,  57,  4. 

Implied  indir.  disc.,  323. 

imus, '  bottom  of,'  241,  i. 

in,  prep.,  143. 

-Ina,  148,  5. 

Inceptives,  155,  i. 

Inchoatives,  155,  i. 

Indeclinable  adjs.,  70,  6. 

nouns,  58. 

Indefinite  pronouns,  91 ;  252. 

Indicative,  271. 

in  apodosis  of  conditional  sent,  of 

3d  type,  304,  3  and  b) . 

indigeo,  const.,  214,  i,  N.  2. 

indignus,  with  rel.  clause  of  purpose, 
282,  3. 

Indirect  discourse,  313  f. ;  subordinate 
clauses  in  ind.,  314,  3. 

questions,  300 ;  in  conditional  sen- 
tences of  3d  type,  322,  b.  ^ 

reflexives,  244/2. 

inferum,  73,  2. 

Infinitive,  326  ff. 

fut.  perf.  inf.,  270,  4. 

without  subj.  ace.,  326-328. 

with  subj.  ace.,  329-331. 

with  adjs.,  333. 

denoting  purpose,  326,  N, 


Infinitive  in  exclamations,  334. 

historical  inf.,  335. 

-im,  -is  in  subjv.,  116,  4,  d. 
infitias,  182,  5. 
Inflection,  n. 
Inflections,  n  ff. 

injussu,  219,  2. 

inl-  =  ill,  9,  2. 

inquam,  134. 

Inseparable  prepositions,  159,  3,  N. 

instar,  with  gen.,  198,  2. 

Instrumental  uses  of  abl.,  218  ff. 

Intensive  pron.,  88. 

Intensives  (verbs),  155,  2. 

interest,  const.,  210 ;  211. 

interior,  73,  i. 

Interjections,  145. 

Interrogative  pronouns,  90. 

sentences,  162;  in  indir.  disc.,  315. 

-inus,  151,  2;   152,  i;   152,  3. 

-id,  verbs  of  3d  conj.,  109. 
jpse,  88  ;  249 ;  as  indir.  reflexive,  249,  3. 

ipsius  and  ipsorum,  with  possessive  pro- 
nouns, 243,  3. 

Irregular  verbs,  124  f.  ^ 

is,  87 ;  247 ;  as  personal  pron.,  247,  2. 

-is,  148,  6,  b}. 

istaec,  87,  footnote  3. 

iste,  87 ;  246,  4. 

isfic,  6,  4. 

istuc,  6,  4 ;  87,  footnote  3. 

itaque,  344,  i,  a). 

itdque,  6,  6. 

-itia,  149. 

z'fer,  42,  I. 

-turn,  147,  3,  £) ;  148,  2. 

-MM,  151,  2;  152,  2;  152,  3;  -*#j  for  -ius, 
362,  i,  #). 

-IVUS,  151,  2. 

J- 
/,  I,  2. 

/#£/<?,  compounds  of,  9,  3. 
jecur,  42,  3. 
jubed,  331,  II. 
jugerum,  59,  i. 

Jupiter,  41. 
juratus,  114,  2. 
jussu,  57,  i ;  219,  2. 

Jussive  subjv.,  275 ;  equiv.  to  a  protasis, 

305,  2. 
juvenis,  73,  4. 


General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


26l 


K. 


k,  i,  i. 


Labial  mutes,  2.  4. 

stems,  31. 

Lacedazmoni,  232,  4. 
laevum,  185,  2. 
largior,  113, 
lentus,  151,  3. 
liberb,  const.,  214,  i,  N,  I. 
licet,  295,  6;  with  subjv.,  308,  a. 
licet,  adversative,  309,  4. 
Lingual  mutes,  2,  4. 
Liquids,  2,  5. 

stems,  34. 

Litotes,  375,  i. 

Locative,  17,  i ;  in  -ae,  21,  2,  c)  ;  in  -£, 
25, 5 ;  syntax,  232 ;  loc.  uses  of  abl.,  228  f. 
loco,  228,  i,  b. 
Long  syllables,  5,  B,  i. 

vowels,  5,  A,  i. 

longius  =  longius  quam,  217,  3. 
longum  est,  271,  I,  b. 
lubet,  9,  i. 

M. 

magnopere,  compared,  77,  i. 

magnus,  compared,  72. 

male,  comparison,  77,  i. 

malb,  130 ;  with  inf.,  331,  IV,  and  a ;  with 

subjv.,  296,  i,  a. 
malus,  comparison,  72. 
mature,  compared,  77,  i. 
medius,  '  middle  of,'  241,  i. 
med,  84,  3. 

met,  as  objective  gen.,  242,  2. 
memjn^ttfe ;  const.,  206,  i,  a ;  2,  a. 
-men,  -mentum,  147,  4. 
-met,  6,  3. 

Metrical  close  of  sent.,  350,  12. 
nii,  dat.,  84,  i. 
ml,  voc.  Qimeus,  86,  2. 
militiae,  232,  2. 
wz//*,  80,  5. 

minus  =  minus  quam,  217,  3. 
mlror,  113. 
mlrus,  75,  2. 

miscere,  with  abl.,  218,  5. 
misereor,  with  gen.,  209,  2. 
miseret,  const.,  209. 


w0dfo,  in  wishes  and  provisos,  310. 
moneb,  103 ;  const.,  178,  i,  d) . 
Moods,  94,  2. 

in  independent  sentences,  271  ft. 

in  dependent  clauses,  282  f. 

Mora,  366,  i. 
multus,  compared,  72. 
mutare,  with  abl.,  218,  5. 
Mutes,  2,  3. 
Mute  stems,  30. 

N. 

n  adulterinum,  2,  6. 

Nasals,  2,  6. 

Nasal  stems,  35. 

natu,  57,  i. 

Natural  gender,  14. 

11  avis,  41,  4. 

-ne,  6,  3. 

ne,  '  lest,'  282,  I. 

ne  non  for  ut  after  verbs  of  fearing,  296, 
2,  a. 

ne  . .  .  quidem,  347,  i. 

nee,  341,  i,  d)  ;  »*£  usquam,  341,  2,  rf). 

necesse  est,  295,  8. ' 

Negatives,  347, 2 ;  two  negatives  strength- 
ening the  negation,  347,  2. 

nemo,  57,  3 ;  252,  6. 

nequam,  70,  6 ;  72. 

neque,  341,  i,  ^) ;  «<?^#<?  in  purpose 
clauses,  282,  i,  e. 

nequiter,  77,  I. 

nescio  quis,  253,  6. 

neuter,  66. 

#£z/<?  (neu),  in  purpose  clauses,  282,  i,  ^. 

«2^^7  ^j/  £«r,  quare,  qum,  295,  7. 

/zz'jz',  306,  I. 

nisi  forte,  306,  5. 

»m  wr<?,  306,  5. 

mtor,  const.,  218,  3. 

wJ/J.with  inf.,  in  prohibitions,  276,  c. 

nolo,  130 ;  with  inf.,  331,  IV ;  and  a ;  with 
subjv.,  296,  i.  a. 

Nominative,  17 ;  nom.  sing,  lacking,  57, 6. 

Nones,  371,  2,  b}. 

non  modo  for  non  modo  non,  343,  2,  a. 

non  quia,  with  ind.,  286,  i,  c;  with  subjv., 
286,  i.  b. 

non  quin,  with  subjv.,  286,  i,  b. 

non  quod,  with  ind.,  286,  i,  c ;  with  subjv., 
286,  i,  b. 

nostri,  as  objective  gen.,  242,  2. 


262 


General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


nostrum,  as  possessive  gen.,  242,  2,  a. 
Nouns,  12  ff. 

in  -is  not  always  ^-sterns,  38,  i. 

used  in  plu.  only,  56. 

used  in  sing,  only,  55. 

used  only  in  certain  cases,  57. 

Noun  and  adj.  forms  of  the  verb,  95,  2. 

novl,  as  pres.,  262,  A. 

novus,  compared,  73,  3. 

nulla  causa  est  cur,  quare,  quln,  295,  7. 

null  us,  66. 

Number,  16. 

Numerals,  78  f. 

nuper,  compared,  77,  I. 

-nus,  151,  2. 

O. 

Oblique  cases,  17,  2. 

obllvlscor,  const.,  206,  i,  b ;  2. 

&#,  133. 

-olus  (a,  urn),  148,  i. 

Onomatopoeia,  375,  4. 

oportet,  295,  6. 

oportuit,  with  pres.  inf.  '  ought  to  have,' 

270,  2;  with  perf.  inf.,  270,  2,  #. 
Optative  subjv.,  272 ;  279. 
optumus,  etc.,  9,  i. 
opus  est,  with  abl.,  218,  2. 
-or,  147,  2. 

Oratio  Obliqua,  313  f. 
Ordinals,  78,  i ;  79. 
orlundus,  const.,  215,  2. 
oro,  with  ace.,  178,  i,  a). 
Orthography  peculiarities,  9. 
os,  42. 

-osus,  151,  3. 
Oxymoron,  375,  2. 

P. 

paenitet,  with  gen.,  209. 

Palatal  mutes,  2,  4. 

Parasitic  vowels,  7,  3. 

parte,  228,  i,  £. 

par  tern,  185,  I. 

Participial  stem,  97,  III ;  formation,  119. 

Participles  in  -ans  and  -ens,  70,  3 ;  syn- 
tax, 336  ff. 

fut.  act.,  119,  4;  denoting  purpose, 

337,  4- 

perf.  pass.,  336,  3 ;  as  pres.,  336,  5. 

pres.  partic.,  336,  2;  with  conative 

force,  336,  2,  a, 


Participles  of  deponents,  112,  b. 

Particles,  139  f. ;  341  f. 

Partitive  apposition,  169, 5. 
patior,  113;  with  inf.,  331,  III. 

Patrial  adjs.,  70,  5,  c). 
parvus,  comparison,  72. 
parum,  comparison,  77,  i. 

Patronyms,  148,  6. 

Penult,  6,  2. 

Perfect  tense,  262. 

stem,  97,  II ;  formation,  118. 

in  -am,  -em,  -Ivl  contracted,  116,  i. 

historical  perf.,  262. 

with  force  of  pres.,  262. 

Periodic  structure,  351,  5.^ 

Periphrastic  conj.,  115;   in   conditional 
sentences  of  the  3d  type,  304,  3,  b) . 

fut.  inf.,  270,  3. 

Persons,   95,   4;    2d  sing,   of  indefinite 
subject,  356,  3. 

Personal  pronouns,  84 ;  242. 

endings,  96. 

piget,  with  gen.,  209. 

Place  whence,  229 ;  place  where,  228. 
placitus,  114,  2. 
plebes,  59,  2,  d} . 

Pleonasm,  374,  3. 
plerdque,  6,  5. 

Pluperfect  tense,  263. 

Plural,  in  5th  decl.,  52,  4;  with  change 
of  meaning,  61 ;  stylistic  use,  353,  i ;  2. 
plus,  70;  70,  4;   —plus  quam,  217,  3. 

Polysyndeton,  341,  4,  b). 
POSCO,  178,  i,  a). 

Possessive  gen.,  contrasted  with  dat.  of 
poss.,359,  i. 

Possessive  pronouns,  86;  243  ;   =  objec- 
tive gen.,  243,  2. 
possum,  126. 
post,  in  expressions  of  time,  357,  i. 

Post-positive  words,  343,  i,  c). 
posteaquam ,  287,  i ;  4. 
posterus,  73,  2. 

postquam,  287;    separated,  287,  3;   with 
imperf.  ind.,  287,  4 ;  with  subjv.,  287,  5. 
postrldie,  with  gen.,  201,  3,  a. 

Potential  subjv.,  272;  280. 

potior,  with  gen.,  212,  2 ;  with  abl.,  218,  i. 

potius,  compared,  77,  i. 

poteram,potui,  in  apodosis  of  conditional 

sent,  of  3d  type,  304,  3,  a) . 
potul,   with    pres,   inf.  =  '  could    have,' 
270,  2. 


General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


263 


potuerim,  in  dependent  apodosis,  322,  c. 
pransus,  114,  2. 
precl,  -emt  -e,  57,  5,  a. 
Predicate,  163. 

gen.,  198,  3 ;  203,  5. 

nouns,  167;  168. 

Prepositions  with  ace.,  141;  with  abl., 

142 ;  as  adverbs,  144 ;  position,  350,  7 ; 

prepositional    phrases    as   attributive 

modifiers,  353,  5. 
Present  tense,  259. 

stem,  97,  I ;  formation,  117. 

perfect,  262. 

prldie,  with  gen.,  201,  3,  a. 
primus, '  first  who,'  241,  2. 
Principal  parts,  99. 

tenses,  257  f. 

prior,  compared,  73,  i. 
prius,  compared,  77,  I. 
priusquam,  with  ind.,  291;  with  subjv., 

292 ;  separated,  291. 
Prohibitive  subjv.,  276. 
Prolepsis,  374,  5. 
Pronouns,  82  f. ;  syntax,  242  f. ;  position, 

350,  5- 

Pronominal  adjs.,  253. 
props,  compared,  77,  I. 
Proper  names,  abbreviated,  373. 

nouns,  12,  i. 

propior,  compared,  73,  i ;  with  ace.,  141, 

3- 
proprius,  with  dat.,  204,  2,  a;  with  gen., 

204,  2. 

Prosody,  360  f. 
Protasis,  301 ;  denoting  repeated  action, 

302,  3;   without  slt  305;  of  indef.  2d 

sing.,  302,  2. 
Provisos,  310. 

proxime,  -us,  with  ace.,  141,  3. 
prudens,  70. 
-pte,  86,  3. 

pudet,  with  gen.,  209. 
Purpose  clauses,  282. 

Q. 

quaeso,  137,  2. 

quam  si,  307,  i. 

quam  ut,  with  subjv.,  284,  4. 

quamquam,  with  ind.,  309,  2 ;  with  subjv., 

309,  6 ;  =  '  and  yet/  309,  5. 
quando,  286,  3. 
Quantity,  5. 


Quantity  of  syllables,  5,  B ;  363  f. 

—  of  vowels,  5,  A ;    362 ;    in   Greek 
words,  365. 

quasi,  307,  I. 

quamvls,  with  subjv.,  309,  i;  6;  denot- 
ing a  fact,  309,  6. 

-^',6,3;  341;   I,  £);  2,  a);  4,  *). 

qued,  137,  i. 

qul,  89 ;  for  quis  in  indir.  questions,  90, 
2,  b\  abl.,  90,  2,  ar 

quia,  in  causal  clauses,  286,  i. 

quicum,  89. 

qmcumque,  91,  8. 

quldam,  91 ;  syntax,  252,  3. 

quidem,  post-positive,  347,  i. 

quilibet,  91. 

quin,  in  result  clauses,  284,  3;  in  sub- 
stantive clauses,  295,  3;  298;  =  qul 
non  in  clauses  of  characteristic,  283, 4 ; 
with  ind.,  281,  3 ;  in  indir.  disc.,  322 
and  a. 

quippe  qul,  283,  3. 

quis,  90 ;  252,  I. 

quls  =  quibus,  89. 

quisnam,  90,  2,  d). 

quispiam,  91. 

quisquam,  91 ;  252,  4. 

quisque,  91 ;  252,  5. 

quis  quis,  91,  8. 

qulvls,  91. 

quo,  in  purpose  clauses,  282,  i,  a. 

quoad,  with  ind.,  293;   with  subjv.,  293, 

III,  2. 

quod,  in  causal  clauses,  286,  i ;  in  sub- 
stantive clauses,  299. 
quod  audierim,  283, 5  ;  quod  sciam,  283,  5. 
quod  si,  185,  2. 
quom,  9,  i. 
quo  minus,  295,  3. 
quoniam,  286,  i. 
quoque,  post-positive,  347. 

R. 

Reciprocal  pronouns,  85,  2 ;  245. 
Reduplication  in  perf.,  118,  4,  a), 
refert,  const.,  210;  211,  4. 
Reflexive  pronouns,  85 ;  244. 
rego,  105. 
rel,  362,  i,  ti) . 
reicio,  362,  5. 
Relative  clauses,  311 ;  312. 

—  conditional  sentences,  312,  2. 


264 


General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Relative  pronouns,  89 ;  250  f. ;  =  Eng.  de- 
monstrative, 251,  6 ;  agreement,  250. 

clauses  with  dlgnus,  indlgnus,  ido- 

neus,  282,  3. 

of  purpose,  282,  2 ;  of  result,  284,  2. 

reliqul,  253,  5. 

reminlscor,  const.,  206,  2. 

requies,  requiem ,  requietem,  59,  2,  c). 

Result  clauses,  284 ;  in  dependent  apod- 
osis,  322,  a. 

revertor,  114,  3. 

Rhetorical  questions,  162,  3 ;  277,  a ;  in 
indir.  disc.,  315,  2. 

Rhotacism,  8,  i. 

rogo,  const.,  178,  I,  c). 

rure,  229,  I,  b. 

rurl,  228,  i,  c. 

rus,  182,  i,  b. 

S. 

j-stems,  36. 

sacer,  65  ;  comparison,  73,  3. 

saepe,  compared,  77,  i. 

salutaris,  73,  4. 

salve,  salvete,  137,  4. 

se, '  one's  self/  244,  3. 

Second  conj.,  103 ;  declension,  23. 

secus,  compared,  77,  i. 

secus  (virile  secus] ,  185,  i. 

sed,  85,  3. 

sed,  343,  i,  a). 

Semi-deponent  verbs,  114. 

Semivowels,  2,  8. 

senex,  42;  compared,  73,  4. 

Sentences,    160    f. ;    sentence-structure, 

351 ;  sentence  questions,  162,  2. 
Sequence  of  tenses,  267 ;  268. 
sequor,  113. 
servos,  24. 

Short  syllables,  5,  B,  2;  vowels,  5,  A,  2. 
si  minus,  306,  2. 
si  non,  306,  i. 

similis,  with  dat.,  204, 3 ;  with  gen.,  204,  3. 
simul  ac,  287,  i ;  2. 
sin,  306,  i. 

sino,  with  inf.,  330,  III. 
soled,  114,  i. 

solus,  66 ;  solus  est  qul  with  subjv.,  283,  2. 
Sounds,  2,  10;  3. 
spei,  362,  i,  b. 
Spirants,  2, 7. 
Spondaic  verses,  368,  2. 
Stem,  17,  3. 


spontis,  -et  57,  2,  £). 

Style,  hints  on,  352  f. 

su  =  sv,  3,  3. 

sub,  with  ace.  and  abl.,  143. 

Subject,  163 ;  nom.,  166 ;  ace.,  179 ;  sub- 
ject ace.  of  inf.  omitted,  314,  5. 

Subjunctive,  in  independent  sentences, 
272;  by  attraction,  324. 

subm-  =  summ-,  9,  2. 

Subordinate  clauses,  165. 

Substantive  clauses,  294  f. ;  without  ut, 
295,  8 ;  of  result,  297. 

Suffixes,  147  f. 

sul,  85 ;  as  objective  gen.,  244,  2 ;  =  pos- 
sessive gen.,  244,  2. 

sum,  100. 

summus,  '  top  of,'  241,  i. 

sunt  qul,  with  subjv.,  283,  2. 

supellex,  42,  2. 

superum,  compared,  73,  2. 

Superlative  lacking,  73,  4;  force  of, 
240,  2. 

Supine,  340. 

suus,  '  one's  own,'  244,  4 ;  suus  quisque, 
244,  4,  a. 

Syllaba  anceps,  366,  10. 

Syllables,  4. 

Synapheia,  367,  6. 

Synaeresis,  367,  i. 

Syncope,  7,  4 ;  367,  8. 

Synchysis,  350,  n,  d). 

Synizesis,  367,  i. 

Syntax,  160  f. 

Systole,  367,  3. 

T. 

taedet,  209. 

tamen,  343,  i,/. 

tametsl,  309,  2. 

tamquam,  tamquam  si,  307. 

tanton,  6,  4. 

-tas,  149. 

ted,  84,  2. 

Temporal  clauses,  287  ff. 

tener,  64. 

Tenses,  95,  3 ;  257  ff. ;  of  inf.,  270 ;  of 
inf.  in  indir.  disc.,  317 ;  of  participles, 
336;  of  subjv.,  266 ;  sequence  of,  266; 
in  indir.  disc.,  317;  318. 

tenus,  position,  142,  3. 

Terminations,  17. 

-ternus,  154. 

terra  marlque,  228,  I,  c. 


General  Index. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


265 


Tetrameter  verses,  366,  u. 

Thesis,  366,  6. 

Third  conj.,  105;  decl.,  28  f. 

-tim,  157,  2. 

Time,  at  which,  230 ;  during  which,  180 ; 

231,  i ;  within  which,  231. 
timed  ne  and  uf,  296,  2. 
-tinus,  154. 
-tid,  147,  3. 
Tmesis,  367,  7. 
-tor,  use  of  nouns  in,  353,  4. 
totus,  66. 

Transitive  verbs,  174. 
ires,  80,  3. 

Trimeter  verses,  366,  n. 
trim,  81,  4,  £). 
Trochee,  366,  2. 
tu,  84. 
-/«</<?,  149. 
-trum,  147,  4. 

/i«,  as  objective  gen.,  242,  2. 
-/«/-a,  147,  3,  a) . 
-/KJ,  147,  3;  151,4. 
tute,  tutemet,  84,  2. 

U. 

«,  becomes  v,  367,  4. 

w-stems,  41. 

ubi,  with  ind..,  287,  i ;  2 ;  with  gen.,  201, 3. 

ullus,  66. 

ulterior,  compared,  73,  i. 

-ulus,  150,  2;   (a,  ww),  148,  i. 

-undus,  -undl,  in  gerund  and  gerundive, 
116,  2. 

unus,  66 ;  unus  est  qul,  with  subjv.,  283, 2. 

usque,  141,  i. 

MJWJ  <?.tf,  with  abl.,  218,  2. 

«/,  temporal,  287,  i;  2;  in  purpose 
clauses,  282 ;  in  result  clauses,  284. 

ut  qul,  introducing  clauses  of  character- 
istic, 283,  3. 

ut  ne  =  ne,  282,  i,  b. 

ut  non  =  ne,  282,  I,  c. 

ut  si,  307,  I. 

uter,  66. 

utercumque,  92,  2. 

uterlibet',<)2,  2. 

uterque,  92,  2 ;  355,  2. 

utervls,  92,  2. 

w/0r,  with  abl.,  218,  i;  in  gerundive 
const.,  339,  4. 

utrdque,  6,  5. 


V. 


v,  becomes  u,  367,  5. 

vas,  59,  i. 

z/a/£,  363,  2,  £). 

-v,  6,  3;  342,  i,  b). 

vel,  342,  i,  £). 

velut,  velut  si,  307,  i. 

Verbs,  94  f. ;    used  absolutely,  174,  a; 

agreement  of,  254  f.;  of  judicial  action, 

const.,  208. 

Verb  stems,  97;  formation  of,  117  f. 
vereor,  113. 
Verse,  366,  3. 
Verse-structure,  366  f. 
Versification,  361. 
versus,  141,  2. 
vesperl,  232,  2. 
ww,343,  !,£•). 
verum,  343,  i,  £). 
vestrl,  242,  2. 

vestrum,  as  possessive  gen.,  242,  2,  a. 
z/£/<?,  with  inf.,  331,  II. 
z/<f/w.y,  70 ;  compared,  73,  3. 
vescor,  with  abl.,  218,  i. 
vicem,  185,  I ;  vicis,  vice,  57,  5,  b. 
viden,  6,  4. 

z>/V&<?,  with  pres.  partic.,  337,  3. 
violenter,  77,  4,  a. 
Vocative  case,  17;  171 ;  in  -I  for  -*>,  25,  i ; 

position  of,  350,  3. 

Voices,  95 ;  256 ;  middle  voice,  256,  i. 
Voiced  sounds,  2,  3,  a. 
Voiced  consonants,  2,  3,  a). 
Volitive  subjunctive,  272. 
volnus,  9,  i. 
void,  130;  with  inf.,  331,  IV  and  a;  with 

subjv.,  296,  i,  a. 
voltus,  9,  i. 

-volus,  comparison  of  adjs.  in,  71,  5. 
Vowels,  2,  i. 
Vowel  changes,  7. 

W. 

Word-formation,  146  f. 
Word-order,  348  f. 
Word  questions,  162,  i. 


Y. 


y,  i,  i. 

i 

Z,  I,  I. 

Zeugma,  374,  2,  a) . 


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Scudder's  Gradatim. 


Scudder's  Gradatim, 

An  Easy  Latin  Reader  for  Beginners. 
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George  H.  Browne,  Preparatory  School,  Cam- 
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the  book  for  six  years.  With  your  additions  to  the 
text  and  improved  vocabulary,  it  will  be  still  more 
satisfactory.  I  cordially  commend  this  edition. 

F.  S.  Fosdick,  Principal  Classical  Department, 
Buffalo  High  School,  N.  Y.  —  Scudder's  edition  of 
Gradatim  is,  in  my  opinion,  far  superior  to  any 
book  for  elementary  translation. 

Prof.  Jacob  Cooper,  Rutgers  College,  N.J.  —  An 
admirable  book  for  beginners.  Nothing  can  be  more 
natural  than  its  method,  and  the  stories  selected  are 
so  interesting  that  they  will  surely  fix  the  attention. 

Prof.  John  H.  Grove,  Wesley  an  University,  Ohio. 
—  It  is  certainly  an  excellent  book  to  put  into  the 
hands  of  beginners  in  Latin.  In  its  admirable  choice 
of  material,  as  well  as  by  its  attractive  appearance, 
it  will  commend  itself  to  all  instructors. 

O.  S.  Westcott,  Principal  North  Division  High 
School,  Chicago.  —  Scudder's  Gradatim  I  am  using 
regularly  as  supplementary  work  in  my  Virgil  class. 

Prof.  B.  L.  D'Ooge,  Normal  School,  Ypsilanti, 
Mich.  —  It  is  in  my  judgment  by  far  the  best  avail- 
able collection  of  easy  Latin  selections,  and  cannot 
fail  to  be  useful  as  an  introduction  to  Caesar,  or 
afterwards  for  supplementary  work. 


Attyn  Sr  Bacon,  Boston  and  Chicago. 


Rolfe's 

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Romae. 


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the  following  points  : 

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Allyn  &  Bacon,  Boston  and  Chicago. 


The  Lives  of 

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In  general  the  same  plan  is  followed  as  in  the 
Selections  from  Viri  Romae. 

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Kelsey' 

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tion of  Ovid  does  more  than  this.  We  have  all 
read  the  stereotyped  testimonial  which  tells  that  the 
author  has  satisfied  a  long  felt  want.  But  a  really 
good  text-book  should  inspire  as  well  as  gratify  an 
appetite.  The  book  that  merely  chronicles  the  best 
system  in  vogue  at  the  time  of  its  publication,  adds 
little  to  the  history  of  teaching.  This  edition  of 
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prosaic  teachers.  I  cannot  help  feeling  that  many  a 
pupil  will  thank  Professor  Kelsey  for  having  shown 
how  the  same  themes  that  inspired  Ovid  still  live  in 
our  own  English  classics.  Hitherto  we  have  had  to 
send  our  boys  to  Bulfinch  for  such  proofs.  Now  we 
have  had  given  to  us  a  manual  of  mythology,  a 
scholarly  edition  of  a  Latin  classic,  and  an  abun- 
dance of  poetic  inspiration,  all  at  once.  Ovid  did 
not  write  to  exhibit  the  grammatical  usages  of  his 
day,  or  to  help  make  philologists;  and  Professor 
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his  verses  are  best  used  when  they  are  made  to 
serve  such  purposes. 


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